Download PDF
Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 2008; 12(4): 302-317
DOI: 10.1055/s-0028-1100638
© Thieme Medical Publishers

MRI Monitoring of Cartilage Repair in the Knee: A Review

Stephan E. Domayer1 , 2 , Götz H. Welsch1 , Ronald Dorotka2 , Tallal C. Mamisch3 , Stefan Marlovits4 , Pavol Szomolanyi1 , 5 , Siegfried Trattnig1
  • 1MR Centre of Excellence, Department of Radiodiagnostics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
  • 2Department of Orthopedics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
  • 3Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
  • 4Department of Trauma Surgery, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
  • 5Department of Imaging Methods, Institute of Measurement Science, Slovak Academy of Science, Slovakia
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
18 November 2008 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

ABSTRACT

Various treatment options for deep cartilage defects are presently available. The efficacy of bone marrow stimulation with microfracture, of mosaicplasty and of various autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) techniques has been subject to numerous studies recently. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has gained a major role in the assessment of cartilage repair. The introduction of high-field MRI to clinical routine makes high resolution and three-dimensional imaging readily available. New quantitative MRI techniques that directly visualize the molecular structure of cartilage may further advance our understanding of cartilage repair. The clinical evaluation of cartilage repair tissue is a complex issue, and MR imaging will become increasingly important both in research and in clinical routine.

This article reviews the clinical aspects of microfracture, mosaicplasty, and ACI and reports the recent technical advances that have improved MRI of cartilage. Morphological evaluation methods are recommended for each of the respective techniques. Finally, an overview of T2 mapping and delayed gadolinium-enhanced MR imaging of cartilage in cartilage repair is provided.

KEYWORDS

Magnetic Resonance Imaging - autologous chondrocyte transplantation - microfracture - autologous osteochondral transplantation - dGEMRIC - T2 mapping

REFERENCES

  • 1 Buckwalter J A, Mankin H J. Articular cartilage: degeneration and osteoarthritis, repair, regeneration, and transplantation.  Instr Course Lect. 1998;  47 487-504
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Hunziker E B. Articular cartilage repair: basic science and clinical progress. A review of the current status and prospects.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2002;  10(6) 432-463
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Steadman J R, Miller B S, Karas S G, Schlegel T F, Briggs K K, Hawkins R J. The microfracture technique in the treatment of full-thickness chondral lesions of the knee in National Football League players.  J Knee Surg. 2003;  16(2) 83-86
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Steadman J R, Rodkey W G, Briggs K K. Microfracture to treat full-thickness chondral defects: surgical technique, rehabilitation, and outcomes.  J Knee Surg. 2002;  15(3) 170-176
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Steadman J R, Rodkey W G, Rodrigo J J. Microfracture: surgical technique and rehabilitation to treat chondral defects.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2001;  (391 suppl) S362-S369
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Steadman J R, Briggs K K, Rodrigo J J, Kocher M S, Gill T J, Rodkey W G. Outcomes of microfracture for traumatic chondral defects of the knee: average 11-year follow-up.  Arthroscopy. 2003;  19(5) 477-484
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Bobic V. Autologous osteo-chondral grafts in the management of articular cartilage lesions [in German].  Orthopade. 1999;  28(1) 19-25
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Hangody L, Feczkó P, Bartha L, Bodó G, Kish G. Mosaicplasty for the treatment of articular defects of the knee and ankle.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2001;  (391 suppl) S328-S336
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Hangody L, Fules P. Autologous osteochondral mosaicplasty for the treatment of full-thickness defects of weight-bearing joints: ten years of experimental and clinical experience.  J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;  85-A(Suppl 2) 25-32
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Hangody L, Ráthonyi G K, Duska Z, Vásárhelyi G, Füles P, Módis L. Autologous osteochondral mosaicplasty. Surgical technique.  J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;  86-A(Suppl 1) 65-72
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Brittberg M. Autologous chondrocyte transplantation.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1999;  (367 suppl) S147-S155
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Brittberg M, Lindahl A, Nilsson A, Ohlsson C, Isaksson O, Peterson L. Treatment of deep cartilage defects in the knee with autologous chondrocyte transplantation.  N Engl J Med. 1994;  331(14) 889-895
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Peterson L, Brittberg M, Kiviranta I, Akerlund E L, Lindahl A. Autologous chondrocyte transplantation. Biomechanics and long-term durability.  Am J Sports Med. 2002;  30(1) 2-12
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Peterson L, Minas T, Brittberg M, Nilsson A, Sjögren-Jansson E, Lindahl A. Two- to 9-year outcome after autologous chondrocyte transplantation of the knee.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2000;  (374) 212-234
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Knutsen G, Engebretsen L, Ludvigsen T C et al.. Autologous chondrocyte implantation compared with microfracture in the knee. A randomized trial.  J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;  86-A(3) 455-464
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Mithoefer K, Williams III R J, Warren R F et al.. The microfracture technique for the treatment of articular cartilage lesions in the knee. A prospective cohort study.  J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2005;  87(9) 1911-1920
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Szerb I, Hangody L, Duska Z, Kaposi N P. Mosaicplasty: long-term follow-up.  Bull Hosp Joint Dis. 2005;  63(1–2) 54-62
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Henderson I, Tuy B, Oakes B. Reoperation after autologous chondrocyte implantation. Indications and findings.  J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2004;  86(2) 205-211
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Nehrer S, Breinan H A, Ramappa A et al.. Matrix collagen type and pore size influence behaviour of seeded canine chondrocytes.  Biomaterials. 1997;  18(11) 769-776
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Nehrer S, Breinan H A, Ramappa A et al.. Canine chondrocytes seeded in type I and type II collagen implants investigated in vitro.  J Biomed Mater Res. 1997;  38(2) 95-104
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Dorotka R, Windberger U, Macfelda K, Bindreiter U, Toma C, Nehrer S. Repair of articular cartilage defects treated by microfracture and a three-dimensional collagen matrix.  Biomaterials. 2005;  26(17) 3617-3629
    Google Scholar
  • 22 Dorotka R, Bindreiter U, Macfelda K, Windberger U, Nehrer S. Marrow stimulation and chondrocyte transplantation using a collagen matrix for cartilage repair.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2005;  13(8) 655-664
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Nehrer S, Domayer S, Dorotka R, Schatz K, Bindreiter U, Kotz R. Three-year clinical outcome after chondrocyte transplantation using a hyaluronan matrix for cartilage repair.  Eur J Radiol. 2006;  57(1) 3-8
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Marcacci M, Berruto M, Brocchetta D et al.. Articular cartilage engineering with Hyalograft C: 3-year clinical results.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2005;  (435) 96-105
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Marcacci M, Zaffagnini S, Kon E, Visani A, Iacono F, Loreti I. Arthroscopic autologous chondrocyte transplantation: technical note.  Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2002;  10(3) 154-159
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Sittinger M, Reitzel D, Dauner M et al.. Resorbable polyesters in cartilage engineering: affinity and biocompatibility of polymer fiber structures to chondrocytes.  J Biomed Mater Res. 1996;  33(2) 57-63
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Chu C R, Coutts R D, Harwood F L, Monosov A Z, Amiel D. Articular cartilage repair using allogeneic perichondrocyte-seeded biodegradable porous polylactic acid (PLA): a tissue-engineering study.  J Biomed Mater Res. 1995;  29(9) 1147-1154
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Grigolo B, Lisignoli G, Piacentini A et al.. Evidence for redifferentiation of human chondrocytes grown on a hyaluronan-based biomaterial (HYAff 11): molecular, immunohistochemical and ultrastructural analysis.  Biomaterials. 2002;  23(4) 1187-1195
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Behrens P, Bitter T, Kurz B, Russlies M. Matrix-associated autologous chondrocyte transplantation/implantation (MACT/MACI)—5-year follow-up.  Knee. 2006;  13(3) 194-202
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Bartlett W, Gooding C R, Carrington R W, Skinner J A, Briggs T W, Bentley G. Autologous chondrocyte implantation at the knee using a bilayer collagen membrane with bone graft. A preliminary report.  J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005;  87(3) 330-332
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Bartlett W, Skinner J A, Gooding C R et al.. Autologous chondrocyte implantation versus matrix-induced autologous chondrocyte implantation for osteochondral defects of the knee: a prospective, randomised study.  J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005;  87(5) 640-645
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Trattnig S, Plank C, Pinker K et al.. Diagnostic imaging of cartilage replacement therapy [in German].  Radiologe. 2004;  44(8) 748-755
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Eckstein F, Charles H C, Buck R J et al.. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of articular cartilage in knee osteoarthritis (OA): morphological assessment.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2006;  14(suppl A) A46-A75
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Burstein D, Gray M L. Is MRI fulfilling its promise for molecular imaging of cartilage in arthritis?.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2006;  14(11) 1087-1090
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Trattnig S, Mamisch T C, Welsch G H et al.. Quantitative T2 mapping of matrix-associated autologous chondrocyte transplantation at 3 Tesla: an in vivo cross-sectional study.  Invest Radiol. 2007;  42(6) 442-448
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Trattnig S, Marlovits S, Gebetsroither S et al.. Three-dimensional delayed gadolinium-enhanced MRI of cartilage (dGEMRIC) for in vivo evaluation of reparative cartilage after matrix-a ssociated autologous chondrocyte transplantation at 3.0T: Preliminary results.  J Magn Reson Imaging. 2007;  26(4) 974-982
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Eckstein F, Hudelmaier M, Wirth W et al.. Double echo steady state magnetic resonance imaging of knee articular cartilage at 3 Tesla: a pilot study for the Osteoarthritis Initiative.  Ann Rheum Dis. 2006;  65(4) 433-441
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Xia Y, Moody J B, Alhadlaq H. Orientational dependence of T2 relaxation in articular cartilage: A microscopic MRI (microMRI) study.  Magn Reson Med. 2002;  48(3) 460-469
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Welsch G H, Mamisch T C, Domayer S E et al.. Cartilage T2 assessment at 3 Tesla: In vivo differentiation of normal hyaline cartilage and reparative tissue in patients after two different cartilage repair procedures - initial experiences.  Radiology. 2008;  247(1) 154-161
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 White L M, Sussman M S, Hurtig M, Probyn L, Tomlinson G, Kandel R. Cartilage T2 assessment: differentiation of normal hyaline cartilage and reparative tissue after arthroscopic cartilage repair in equine subjects.  Radiology. 2006;  241(2) 407-414
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Watanabe A, Wada Y, Obata T et al.. Delayed gadolinium-enhanced MR to determine glycosaminoglycan concentration in reparative cartilage after autologous chondrocyte implantation: preliminary results.  Radiology. 2006;  239(1) 201-208
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Trattnig S, Pinker K, Krestan C, Plank C, Millington S, Marlovits S. Matrix-based autologous chondrocyte implantation for cartilage repair with HyalograftC: two-year follow-up by magnetic resonance imaging.  Eur J Radiol. 2006;  57(1) 9-15
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Trattnig S, Ba-Ssalamah A, Pinker K, Plank C, Vecsei V, Marlovits S. Matrix-based autologous chondrocyte implantation for cartilage repair: noninvasive monitoring by high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging.  Magn Reson Imaging. 2005;  23(7) 779-787
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Nehrer S, Minas T. Treatment of articular cartilage defects.  Invest Radiol. 2000;  35(10) 639-646
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Kreuz P C, Erggelet C, Steinwachs M R et al.. Is microfracture of chondral defects in the knee associated with different results in patients aged 40 years or younger?.  Arthroscopy. 2006;  22(11) 1180-1186
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Kreuz P C, Steinwachs M R, Erggelet C et al.. Results after microfracture of full-thickness chondral defects in different compartments in the knee.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2006;  14(11) 1119-1125
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Gobbi A, Nunag P, Malinowski K. Treatment of full thickness chondral lesions of the knee with microfracture in a group of athletes.  Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2005;  13(3) 213-221
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Smith G D, Knutsen G, Richardson J B. A clinical review of cartilage repair techniques.  J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005;  87(4) 445-449
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Kish G, Modis L, Hangody L. Osteochondral mosaicplasty for the treatment of focal chondral and osteochondral lesions of the knee and talus in the athlete. Rationale, indications, techniques, and results.  Clin Sports Med. 1999;  18(1) 45-66 , vi
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Jakob R P, Franz T, Gautier E, Mainil-Varlet P. Autologous osteochondral grafting in the knee: indication, results, and reflections.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2002;  (401) 170-184
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Brittberg M, Winalski C S. Evaluation of cartilage injuries and repair.  J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;  85-A(Suppl 2) 58-69
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Micheli L J, Browne J E, Erggelet C et al.. Autologous chondrocyte implantation of the knee: multicenter experience and minimum 3-year follow-up.  Clin J Sport Med. 2001;  11(4) 223-228
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Peterson L, Minas T, Brittberg M, Lindahl A. Treatment of osteochondritis dissecans of the knee with autologous chondrocyte transplantation: results at two to ten years.  J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;  85-A(suppl 2) 17-24
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Wasiak J, Clar C, Villanueva E. Autologous cartilage implantation for full thickness articular cartilage defects of the knee.  Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;  3 , CD003323. Review
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Bentley G, Biant L C, Carrington R W et al.. A prospective, randomised comparison of autologous chondrocyte implantation versus mosaicplasty for osteochondral defects in the knee.  J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2003;  85(2) 223-230
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Saris D B, Vanlauwe J, Victor J et al.. Characterized chondrocyte implantation results in better structural repair when treating symptomatic cartilage defects of the knee in a randomized controlled trial versus microfracture.  Am J Sports Med. 2008;  36(2) 235-246
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Henderson I, Lavigne P, Valenzuela H, Oakes B. Autologous chondrocyte implantation: superior biologic properties of hyaline cartilage repairs.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2007;  455 253-261
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Henderson I J, Tuy B, Connell D, Oakes B, Hettwer W H. Prospective clinical study of autologous chondrocyte implantation and correlation with MRI at three and 12 months.  J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2003;  85(7) 1060-1066
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Watanabe A, Wada Y, Obata T et al.. Time course evaluation of reparative cartilage with MR imaging after autologous chondrocyte implantation.  Cell Transplant. 2005;  14(9) 695-700
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Tins B J, McCall I W, Takahashi T et al.. Autologous chondrocyte implantation in knee joint: MR imaging and histologic features at 1-year follow-up.  Radiology. 2005;  234(2) 501-508
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Marlovits S, Zeller P, Singer P, Resigner C, Vécsei V. Cartilage repair: generations of autologous chondrocyte transplantation.  Eur J Radiol. 2006;  57(1) 24-31
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Pavesio A, Abatangelo G, Borrione A et al.. Hyaluronan-based scaffolds (Hyalograft C) in the treatment of knee cartilage defects: preliminary clinical findings.  Novartis Found Symp. 2003;  249 203-217 discussion 229-233 234-238 239-241
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Trattnig S. Overuse of hyaline cartilage and imaging.  Eur J Radiol. 1997;  25(3) 188-198
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Recht M, Bobic V, Burstein D et al.. Magnetic resonance imaging of articular cartilage.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2001;  (391 suppl) S379-S396
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Disler D G, McCauley T R, Kelman C G et al.. Fat-suppressed three-dimensional spoiled gradient-echo MR imaging of hyaline cartilage defects in the knee: comparison with standard MR imaging and arthroscopy.  AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1996;  167(1) 127-132
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Potter H G, Linklater J M, Allen A A, Hannafin J A, Haas S E. Magnetic resonance imaging of articular cartilage in the knee. An evaluation with use of fast-spin-echo imaging.  J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1998;  80(9) 1276-1284
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Bobic V. ICRS articular cartilage imaging committee, ICRS MR Imaging Protocol for knee articular cartilage. Newsletter 2000, III 2000 12
    Google Scholar
  • 68 Yao L, Gentili A, Thomas A. Incidental magnetization transfer contrast in fast spin-echo imaging of cartilage.  J Magn Reson Imaging. 1996;  6(1) 180-184
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Constable R T, Anderson A W, Zhong J, Gore J C. Factors influencing contrast in fast spin-echo MR imaging.  Magn Reson Imaging. 1992;  10(4) 497-511
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Burkart A, Imhoff A B. Diagnostic imaging after autologous chondrocyte transplantation. Correlation of magnetic resonance tomography, histological and arthroscopic findings [in German].  Orthopade. 2000;  29(2) 135-144
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Trattnig S, Huber M, Bretienseher M J et al.. Imaging articular cartilage defects with 3D fat-suppressed echo planar imaging: comparison with conventional 3D fat-suppressed gradient echo sequence and correlation with histology.  J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1998;  22(1) 8-14
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Duc S R, Pfirrmann C W, Schmid M R et al.. Articular cartilage defects detected with 3D water-excitation true FISP: prospective comparison with sequences commonly used for knee imaging.  Radiology. 2007;  245(1) 216-223
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Peterfy C G, van Dijke C F, Lu Y et al.. Quantification of the volume of articular cartilage in the metacarpophalangeal joints of the hand: accuracy and precision of three-dimensional MR imaging.  AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1995;  165(2) 371-375
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Recht M P, Piraino D W, Paletta G A, Schils J P, Belhobek G H. Accuracy of fat-suppressed three-dimensional spoiled gradient-echo FLASH MR imaging in the detection of patellofemoral articular cartilage abnormalities.  Radiology. 1996;  198(1) 209-212
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Rubenstein J D, Li J G, Majumdar S, Henkelman R M. Image resolution and signal-to-noise ratio requirements for MR imaging of degenerative cartilage.  AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1997;  169(4) 1089-1096
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Marlovits S, Striessnig G, Resinger C T et al.. Definition of pertinent parameters for the evaluation of articular cartilage repair tissue with high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging.  Eur J Radiol. 2004;  52(3) 310-319
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Roberts S, McCall A W, Darby A J et al.. Autologous chondrocyte implantation for cartilage repair: monitoring its success y magnetic resonance imaging and histology.  Arthritis Res Ther. 2003;  5(1) pR60-pR73
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Marlovits S, Singer P, Zeller P, Mandl I, Haller J, Trattnig S. Magnetic resonance observation of cartilage repair tissue (MOCART) for the evaluation of autologous chondrocyte transplantation: determination of interobserver variability and correlation to clinical outcome after 2 years.  Eur J Radiol. 2006;  57(1) 16-23
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Ramappa A J, Gill T J, Bradford C H, Ho C P, Steadman J R. Magnetic resonance imaging to assess knee cartilage repair tissue after microfracture of chondral defects.  J Knee Surg. 2007;  20(3) 228-234
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Link T M, Sell C A, Masi J N et al.. 3.0 vs 1.5 T MRI in the detection of focal cartilage pathology–ROC analysis in an experimental model.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2006;  14(1) 63-70
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Masi J N, Sell C A, Phan C et al.. Cartilage MR imaging at 3.0 versus that at 1.5 T: preliminary results in a porcine model.  Radiology. 2005;  236(1) 140-150
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Link T M, Mischung J, Wörtler K, Burkart A, Rummeny E J, Imhoff A B. Normal and pathological MR findings in osteochondral autografts with longitudinal follow-up.  Eur Radiol. 2006;  16(1) 88-96
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Herber S, Runkel M, Pitton M B, Kalden P, Thelen M, Kreitner K F. Indirect MR-arthrography in the follow up of autologous osteochondral transplantation [in German].  Rofo. 2003;  175(2) 226-233
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Sanders T G, Mentzer K D, Miller M D, Morrison W B, Campbell S E, Penrod B J. Autogenous osteochondral “plug” transfer for the treatment of focal chondral defects: postoperative MR appearance with clinical correlation.  Skeletal Radiol. 2001;  30(10) 570-578
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Haddo O, Mahroof S, Higgs D et al.. The use of chondrogide membrane in autologous chondrocyte implantation.  Knee. 2004;  11(1) 51-55
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Alparslan L, Winalski C S, Boutin R D, Minas T. Postoperative magnetic resonance imaging of articular cartilage repair.  Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2001;  5(4) 345-363
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Alparslan L, Minas T, Winalski C S. Magnetic resonance imaging of autologous chondrocyte implantation.  Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2001;  22(4) 341-351
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Minas T, Peterson L. Advanced techniques in autologous chondrocyte transplantation.  Clin Sports Med. 1999;  18(1) 13-44 v-vi
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Minas T, Chiu R. Autologous chondrocyte implantation.  Am J Knee Surg. 2000;  13(1) 41-50
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Gold G E, Bergman A G, Pauly J M et al.. Magnetic resonance imaging of knee cartilage repair.  Top Magn Reson Imaging. 1998;  9(6) 377-392
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 James S L, Connell D A, Saifuddin A, Skinner J A, Briggs T W. MR imaging of autologous chondrocyte implantation of the knee.  Eur Radiol. 2006;  16(5) 1022-1030
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Brown W E, Potter H G, Marx R G, Wickiewicz T L, Warren R F. Magnetic resonance imaging appearance of cartilage repair in the knee.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2004;  (422) 214-223
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Gold G E, Hargreaves B A, Stevens K J, Beaulier C F. Advanced magnetic resonance imaging of articular cartilage.  Orthop Clin North Am. 2006;  37(3) 331-347 vi
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Schweitzer M E, White L M. Does altered biomechanics cause marrow edema?.  Radiology. 1996;  198(3) 851-853
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Kornaat P R, Bloem J L, Ceulemans R Y et al.. Osteoarthritis of the knee: association between clinical features and MR imaging findings.  Radiology. 2006;  239(3) 811-817
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Mosher T J, Dardzinski B J. Cartilage MRI T2 relaxation time mapping: overview and applications.  Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2004;  8(4) 355-368
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Mosher T J, Smith H, Dardzinski B J, Schmithorst V J, Smith M B. MR imaging and T2 mapping of femoral cartilage: in vivo determination of the magic angle effect.  AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2001;  177(3) 665-669
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Domayer S E, Kutscha-Lissberg F, Welsch G et al.. T2 mapping in the knee after microfracture at 3.0 T: correlation of global T2 values and clinical outcome - preliminary results.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2008;  16(8) 903-908
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Williams A, Sharma L, McKenzie C A, Prasad P V, Burstein D. Delayed gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of cartilage in knee osteoarthritis: findings at different radiographic stages of disease and relationship to malalignment.  Arthritis Rheum. 2005;  52(11) 3528-3535
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Williams A, Sharma L, McKenzie C A, Prasad P V, Burstein D. Glycosaminoglycan distribution in cartilage as determined by delayed gadolinium-enhanced MRI of cartilage (dGEMRIC): potential clinical applications.  AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004;  182(1) 167-172
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Nieminen M T, Rieppo J, Silvennoinen J et al.. Spatial assessment of articular cartilage proteoglycans with Gd-DTPA-enhanced T1 imaging.  Magn Reson Med. 2002;  48(4) 640-648
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Bashir A, Gray M L, Boutin R D, Burstein D. Glycosaminoglycan in articular cartilage: in vivo assessment with delayed Gd(DTPA)(2-)-enhanced MR imaging.  Radiology. 1997;  205(2) 551-558
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Bashir A, Gray M L, Hartke J, Burstein D. Nondestructive imaging of human cartilage glycosaminoglycan concentration by MRI.  Magn Reson Med. 1999;  41(5) 857-865
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Petersen E F, Fishbein K W, Laouar L, Spencer R G, Wenz J F. Ex vivo magnetic resonance microscopy of an osteochondral transfer.  J Magn Reson Imaging. 2003;  17(5) 603-608
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Trattnig S, Mlynárik V, Breitenseher M et al.. MRI visualization of proteoglycan depletion in articular cartilage via intravenous administration of Gd-DTPA.  Magn Reson Imaging. 1999;  17(4) 577-583
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Kimelman T, Vu A, Storey P, McKenzie C, Burstein D, Prasad P. Three-dimensional T1 mapping for dGEMRIC at 3.0 T using the Look Locker method.  Invest Radiol. 2006;  41(2) 198-203
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Kurkijärvi J E, Mattila L, Ojala R O et al.. Evaluation of cartilage repair in the distal femur after autologous chondrocyte transplantation using T2 relaxation time and dGEMRIC.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2007;  15(4) 372-378
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Trattnig S, Mamisch T C, Pinker K et al.. Differentiating normal hyaline cartilage from post-surgical repair tissue using fast gradient echo imaging in delayed gadolinium enhanced MRI (dGEMRIC) at 3 Tesla.  Eur Radiol. 2008;  18(6) 1251-1259
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Ghivizzani S C, Oligino T J, Robbins P D, Evan C H. Cartilage injury and repair.  Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2000;  11(2) 289-307
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Minas T, Nehrer S. Current concepts in the treatment of articular cartilage defects.  Orthopedics. 1997;  20(6) 525-538
    PubMedGoogle Scholar

Siegfried TrattnigM.D. 

MR Centre of Excellence, Department of Radiodiagnostics, Medical University of Vienna

Lazarettgasse 14, A-1090 Vienna, Austria

Email: siegfried.trattnig@meduniwien.ac.at