PDF icon PDF herunterladen
Pneumologie 2012; 66(2): 96-110
DOI: 10.1055/s-0030-1257126
Fort- und Weiterbildung

© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Sarkoidose

SarcoidosisS.  Pabst1 , D.  Skowasch1 , C.  Grohé2
  • 1Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik II, Klinik für Kardiologie, Pneumologie, Angiologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Universitätsklinikum Bonn
  • 2Evangelische Lungenklinik Berlin-Buch, Klinik für Pneumologie
Weitere Informationen

Publikationsverlauf

Publikationsdatum:
15. Februar 2012 (online)

Auch verfügbar aufeRef
  Lizenzen und Reprints
Preview

Lernziele

Granulomatöse Erkrankungen wie die Sarkoidose stellen sich klinisch sehr vielfältig dar. Der Artikel soll die unterschiedlichen Manifestationen beleuchten und die differentialdiagnostischen Inhalte und Therapieziele vermitteln. Wichtig ist die Analyse, welcher Patient mit Sarkoidose von welcher Therapie langfristig profitiert.

Literatur

  • 1 Iannuzzi M C, Fontana J R. Sarcoidosis: clinical presentation, immunopathogenesis, and therapeutics.  JAMA. 2011;  305 391-399
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 2 Boeck C. Multiple benign sarcoid of the skin.  J Cutan Genitourin Dis. 1899;  17 543-550
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 3 Pabst S, Tuleta I, Grohé C. Kardiale Sarkoidose.  Kardiologe. 2008;  2 299-311
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 4 Pietinalho A, Hiraga Y, Hosoda Y et al. The frequency of sarcoidosis in Finland and Hokkaido, Japan: a comparative epidemiological study.  Sarcoidosis. 1995;  12 61-67
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 5 Deubelbeiss U, Gemperli A, Schindler C et al. Prevalence of sarcoidosis in Switzerland is associated with environmental factors.  Eur Respir J. 2010;  35 1088-1097
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 6 Iwai K, Tachibana T, Takemura T et al. Pathological studies on sarcoidosis autopsy. I. Epidemiological features of 320 cases in Japan.  Acta Pathol Jpn. 1993;  43 372-376
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 7 Reid J D. Sarcoidosis in coroner's autopsies: a critical evaluation of diagnosis and prevalence from Cuyahoga County, Ohio.  Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 1998;  15 44-51
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 8 Pollak B. Epidemiology of sarcoidosis in Canada.  Acta Med Scand Suppl. 1964;  425 145
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 9 Hagerstrand I, Linell F. The prevalence of sarcoidosis in the autopsy material from a Swedish town.  Acta Med Scand Suppl. 1964;  425 171-174
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 10 Kitaichi M. Prevalence of sarcoidosis around the world.  Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 1998;  15 16-18
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 11 Rybicki B A, Major M, Popovich J et al. Racial differences in sarcoidosis incidence: a 5-year study in a health maintenance organization.  Am J Epidemiol. 1997;  145 234-241
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 12 Baughman R P, Teirstein A S, Judson M A et al. Clinical characteristics of patients in a case control study of sarcoidosis.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;  164 1885-1889
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 13 Zissel G, Prasse A, Muller-Quernheim J. Immunologic response of sarcoidosis.  Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2010;  31 390-403
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 14 Moller D R, Forman J D, Liu M C et al. Enhanced expression of IL-12 associated with Th 1 cytokine profiles in active pulmonary sarcoidosis.  J Immunol. 1996;  156 4952-4960
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 15 Semenzato G, Gurrieri C, Agostini C. Mechanisms of Granuloma Formatio in Sarcoidosis. Taylor & Francis; 2006: 65-78
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 16 Pabst S, Baumgarten G, Stremmel A et al. Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 polymorphisms are associated with a chronic course of sarcoidosis.  Clin Exp Immunol. 2006;  143 420-426
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 17 Pabst S, Karpushova A, Diaz-Lacava A et al. VEGF gene haplotypes are associated with sarcoidosis.  Chest. 2010;  137 156-163
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 18 Taflin C, Miyara M, Nochy D et al. FoxP31 regulatory T cells suppress early stages of granuloma formation but have little impact on sarcoidosis lesions.  Am J Pathol. 2009;  174 497-508
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 19 Prasse A, Zissel G, Lutzen N et al. Inhaled Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide Exerts Immuno-regulatory Effects in Sarcoidosis.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2010;  182 540-548
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 20 Rappl G, Pabst S, Riemann D et al. Regulatory T cells with reduced repressor capacities are extensively amplified in pulmonary sarcoid lesions and sustain granuloma formation.  Clin Immunol.. 2011;  140 71-83
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 21 Miyara M, Amoura Z, Parizot C et al. The immune paradox of sarcoidosis and regulatory T cells.  J Exp Med.. 2006;  203 359-370
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 22 Song Z, Marzilli L, Greenlee B M et al. Mycobacterial catalase-peroxidase is a tissue antigen and target of the adaptive immune response in systemic sarcoidosis.  J Exp Med. 2005;  201 755-767
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 23 Chen E S, Wahlstrom J, Song Z et al. T cell responses to mycobacterial catalase-peroxidase profile a pathogenic antigen in systemic sarcoidosis.  J Immunol. 2008;  181 8784-8796
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 24 Schoppet M, Pankuweit S, Maisch B. Cardiac sarcoidosis: cytokine patterns in the course of the disease.  Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2003;  127 1207-1210
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 25 Kucera G P, Rybicki B A, Kirkey K L et al. Occupational risk factors for sarcoidosis in African-American siblings.  Chest. 2003;  123 1527-1535
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 26 Gorham E D, Garland C F, Garland F C et al. Trends and occupational associations in incidence of hospitalized pulmonary sarcoidosis and other lung diseases in Navy personnel: a 27-year historical prospective study, 1975 – 2001.  Chest. 2004;  126 1431-1438
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 27 Prezant D J, Dhala A, Goldstein A et al. The incidence, prevalence, and severity of sarcoidosis in New York City firefighters.  Chest. 1999;  116 1183-1193
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 28 Barnard J, Rose C, Newman L et al. Job and industry classifications associated with sarcoidosis in a Case-Control Etiologic Study of Sarcoidosis (ACCESS).  J Occup Environ Med. 2005;  47 226-234
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 29 Izbicki G, Chavko R, Banauch G I et al. World Trade Center „sarcoid-like“ granulomatous pulmonary disease in New York City Fire Department rescue workers.  Chest. 2007;  131 1414-1423
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 30 Oswald-Richter K A, Drake W P. The etiologic role of infectious antigens in sarcoidosis pathogenesis.  Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2010;  31 375-379
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 31 Wurm K, Kehler E, Reichelt H. Zur Pathogenese der Sarkoidose (Morbus Boeck): Gehäuftes Sarkoidosevorkommen in tuberkulösen Sippen.  Med Klin. 1962;  57 1760-1764
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 32 Jörgensen G. Die Genetik der Sarkoidose.  Acta Med Scand. 1964;  425 209-212
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 33 Wiman L G. Familial occurrence of sarcoidosis.  Scand J Respir Dis. 1972;  80 115-119
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 34 Sharma O P, Neville E, Walker A N et al. Familial sarcoidosis: a possible genetic influence.  Ann NY Acad Sci. 1976;  278 386-400
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 35 Nowack D, Goebel K M. Genetic aspects of sarcoidosis: class II antigens and a family study.  Arch Intern Med. 1987;  147 481-483
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 36 Kirsten D. Sarkoidose in Deutschland: Analyse einer Fragebogenaktion im Jahre 1992 bei Patienten der Deutschen Sarkoidose-Vereinigung.  Pneumologie. 1995;  49 378-385
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 37 Rybicki B A, Harrington D, Major M et al. Heterogeneity of familial risk in sarcoidosis.  Genet Epidemiol. 1996;  13 23-33
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 38 Schürmann M, Reichel P, Müller-Myhsok B et al. Results from a genome-wide search for predisposing genes in sarcoidosis.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;  164 840-846
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 39 Valentonyte R, Hampe J, Croucher P J et al. Study of C-C chemokine receptor 2 alleles in sarcoidosis, with emphasis on family-based analysis.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;  171 1136-1141
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 40 Rybicki B A, Iannuzzi M C, Frederick M M et al. Familial aggregation of sarcoidosis: A Case-Control Etiologic Study of Sarcoidosis (ACCESS).  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;  164 2085-2091
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 41 Sverrild A, Backer V, Kyvik K O et al. Heredity in sarcoidosis: a registry-based twin study.  Thorax. 2008;  63 894-896
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 42 Judson M A, Hirst K, Iyengar S K et al. Comparison of sarcoidosis phenotypes among affected African-American siblings.  Chest. 2006;  130 855-862
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 43 Valentonyte R, Hampe J, Huse K et al. Sarcoidosis is associated with a truncating splice site mutation in BTNL2.  Nat Genet. 2005;  37 357-364
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 44 Li Y, Wollnik B, Pabst S et al. A BTNL2 gene variant confers to sarcoidosis susceptibility by an increased risk towards the chronic form of the disease.  Thorax. 2006;  61 273-274
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 45 Hofmann S, Franke A, Fischer A et al. Genome-wide association study identifies ANXA11 as a new susceptibility locus for sarcoidosis.  Nature Genetics. 2008;  40 1103-1106
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 46 Li Y, Pabst S, Kubisch C et al. First independent replication study confirms the strong genetic association of ANXA11 with sarcoidosis.  Thorax. 2010;  65 939-940
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 47 Kraft P, Hunter D J. Genetic risk prediction – are we there yet?.  N Engl J Med. 2009;  360 1701-1703
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 48 Müller-Quernheim J, Schürmann M, Hofmann S et al. Genetics of sarcoidosis.  Clin Chest Med. 2008;  29 391-414
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 49 Lynch J P, Baughman R, Sharma O. Extrapulmonary Sarcoidosis.  Semin Respir Infect. 1998;  13 229-254
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 50 Smith G, Brownell I, Sanchez M et al. Advances in the genetics of sarcoidosis.  Clin Genet.. 2008;  73 401-412
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 51 Cavazza A, Harari S, Caminati A et al. The histology of pulmonary sarcoidosis: a review with particular emphasis on unusual and underrecognized features.  Int J Surg Pathol. 2009;  17 219-230
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 52 Hillerdal G, Niou E, Osterman K et al. Sarcoidosis: epidemiology and prognosis. A 15-year European study.  Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984;  130 29-32
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 53 Lynch J P, Kaszerooni E A, Gay S E. Pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Clin Chest Med. 1997;  18 755-785
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 54 Reich J M, Johnson R E. Course and prognosis of sarcoidosis in a nonreferral setting. Analysis of 86 patients observed for 10 years.  Am J Med. 1985;  78 61-67
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 55 Reich J M. Mortality of intrathoracic sarcoidosis in referral vs population-based settings: influence of stage, ethnicity, and corticosteroid therapy.  Chest. 2002;  121 32-39
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 56 Prasse A, Katic C, Germann M et al. Phenotyping sarcoidosis from a pulmonary perspective.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;  177 330-336
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 57 Statement on sarcoidosis. Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS), the European Respiratory Society (ERS) and the World Association of Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders (WASOG) adopted by the ATS Board of Directors and by the ERS Executive Committee, February 1999.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;  160 736-755
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 58 Baughman R P, Teirstein A S, Judson M A et al. Clinical characteristics of patients in a case control study of sarcoidosis.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;  164 1885-1889
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 59 Baughman R P, Lower E E, du Bois R. Sarcoidosis.  Lancet. 2003;  361 1111-1118
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 60 Nunes H, Soler P, Valeyre D. Pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Allergy. 2005;  60 565-582
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 61 Nunes H, Bouvry D, Soler P et al. Sarcoidosis.  Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases. 2007;  2 46
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 62 Siltzbach L E, James D G, Neville E et al. Course and prognosis of sarcoidosis around the world.  Am J Med. 1974;  57 847-852
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 63 Grunewald J, Eklund A, Olerup O. Human leukocyte antigen class I alleles and the disease course in sarcoidosis patients.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;  169 696-702
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 64 Grunewald J, Eklund A. Sex-specific manifestations of Löfgren-Syndrome.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;  175 40-44
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 65 Müller-Quernheim J, Gaede K I, Prasse A et al. Chronische Berylliose.  Pneumologie. 2007;  61 109-116
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 66 Pietinalho A, Ohmichi M, Hirasawa M et al. Familial sarcoidosis in Finland and Hokkaido, Japan: a comparative study.  Respir Med. 1999;  93 408-412
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 67 Judson M A. Sarcoidosis: clinical presentation, diagnosis, and approach to treatment.  Am Med Sci. 2008;  335 26-33
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 68 Nunes H, Bouvry D, Soler P et al. Sarcoidosis.  Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases. 2007;  2 46
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 69 Semenzato G, Bortoli M, Brunetta E et al. Immunology and pathophisiology.. In: Drent M, Costabel U, eds. Sarcoidosis.. European Respiratory Monograph; 2005: 49-63
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 70 Bernstein M, Konselmann F W, Sidlick D M. Boeck's Sarcoid.  Arch Intern Med. 1929;  44 721-734
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 71 Roberts W C, McAllister H A, Ferrans V J. Sarcoidosis of the heart: a clinicopathologic study of 35 necropsy patients (group 1) and review of 78 previously described necropsy patients (group 2).  Am J Med. 1977;  63 86-108
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 72 Iwai K, Sekiguti M, Hosoda Y et al. Racial difference in cardiac sarcoidosis incidence observed at autopsy.  Sarcoidosis. 1994;  11 26-31
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 73 Smedema J P, Snoep G, van Kroonenburgh M P et al. Cardiac Involvement in Patients With Pulmonary Sarcoidosis Assessed at Two University Medical Centers in the Netherlands.  Chest. 2005;  128 30-35
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 74 Gideon N M, Mannino D M. Sarcoidosis mortality in the United States 1979 – 1991: an analysis of multiple-cause mortality data.  Am J Med.. 1996;  100 423-427
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 75 Baughman R P, Winget D B, Bowen E H et al. Predicting respiratory failure in sarcoidosis patients.  Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis.. 1997;  14 154-158
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 76 Smedema J P, Snoep G, van Kroonenburgh M P et al. The additional value of gadolinium-enhanced MRI to standard assessment for cardiac involvement in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Chest. 2005;  128 1629-1637
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 77 Shimada T, Shimada K, Sakane T et al. Diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis and evaluation of the effects of steroid therapy by gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging.  Am J Med. 2001;  110 520-527
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 78 Hiraga H, Hiroe M, Iwai K et al. Guideline for Diagnosis of Cardiac Sarcoidosis: Study Report on Diffuse Pulmonary Diseases. Tokyo, Japan: The Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare; 1993: 23-24 [in Japanese]
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 79 Patel M R, Cawley P J, Heitner J F et al. Detection of myocardial damage in patients with sarcoidosis.  Circulation.. 2009;  120 1969-1977
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 80 Vignaux O, Dhote R, Duboc D et al. Clinical significance of myocardial magnetic resonance abnormalities in patients with sarcoidosis: a 1-year follow-up study.  Chest. 2002;  122 1895-1901
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 81 Borchert B, Lawrenz T, Bartelsmeier M et al. Utility of endomyocardial biopsy guided by delayed enhancement areas on magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis.  Clin Res Cardiol. 2007;  96 759-762
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 82 Uemura A, Morimoto S, Hiramitsu S et al. Histologic diagnostic rate of cardiac sarcoidosis: evaluation of endomyocardial biopsies.  Am Heart J. 1999;  138 299-302
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 83 Stern B J, Krumholz A, Johns C et al. Sarcoidosis and its neurological manifestations.  Arch Neurol. 1985;  42 909-917
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 84 James D G, Sharma O P. Neurosarcoidosis.  Proc R Soc Med. 1967;  60 1169-1170
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 85 Skowasch D, Pabst S, Wilhelm K et al. Diabetes Insipidus due to Neurosarcoidosis.  Pneumologie. 2011;  65 496-497
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 86 Bakkers M, Faber C G, Drent M et al. Pain and autonomic dysfunction in patients with sarcoidosis and small fibre neuropathy.  J Neurol.. 2010;  257 2086-2090
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 87 Scott T F, Yandora K, Valeri A et al. Aggressive therapy for neurosarcoidosis: long-term follow-up of 48 treated patients.  Arch Neurol. 2007;  64 691-696
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 88 Hoitsma E, Sharma O P. Neurosarcoidosis.  Eur Respir J Monogr. 2005;  10 164-187
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 89 Jarnier D, Seriès C. Neurosarcoidosis. Review of the literature.  Neurochirurgie. 1999;  45 214-218
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 90 Yanardag H, Pamuk O N, Karayel T. Cutaneous involvement in sarcoidosis: analysis of the features in 170 patients.  Respir Med. 2003;  97 978-982
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 91 Rizzato G, Pezzano A, Sala G et al. Right heart impairment in sarcoidosis: haemodynamic and echocardiographic study.  Eur J Respir Dis. 1983;  64 121-8
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 92 Sulica R, Teirstein A S, Kakarla S et al. Distinctive clinical, radiographic, and functional characteristics of patients with sarcoidosis-related pulmonary hypertension.  Chest. 2005;  128 1483-1489
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 93 Baughman R P, Judson M A, Teirstein A et al. Presenting characteristics as predictors of duration of treatment in sarcoidosis.  QJM. 2006;  99 307-315
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 94 Handa T, Nagai S, Miki S et al. Incidence of pulmonary hypertension and its clinical relevance in patients with sarcoidosis.  Chest. 2006;  129 1246-1252
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 95 Bourbonnais J M, Samavati L. Clinical predictors of pulmonary hypertension in sarcoidosis.  Eur Respir J. 2008;  32 296-302
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 96 Baughman R P, Engel P J, Taylor L et al. Survival in sarcoidosis-associated pulmonary hypertension: the importance of hemodynamic evaluation.  Chest. 2010;  138 1078-1085
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 97 Nunes H, Humbert M, Capron F et al. Pulmonary hypertension associated with sarcoidosis: mechanisms, haemodynamics and prognosis.  Thorax. 2006;  61 68-74
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 98 Baughman R P, Culver D A, Judson M A. A concise review of pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;  183 573-581
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 99 Chambellan A, Turbie P, Nunes H et al. Endoluminal stenosis of proximal bronchi in sarcoidosis: bronchoscopy, function, and evolution.  Chest. 2005;  127 472-481
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 100 Hours S, Nunes H, Kambouchner M et al. Pulmonary cavitary sarcoidosis: clinico-radiologic characteristics and natural history of a rare form of sarcoidosis.  Medicine (Baltimore). 2008;  87 142-151
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 101 Scadding J. Prognosis of intrathoracic sarcoidosis in England: a review of 136 cases after five years’ observation.  Br Med J. 1961;  2 1165-1172
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 102 Hillerdal G, Niou E, Osterman K et al. Sarcoidosis: epidemiology and prognosis. A 15-year European study.  Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984;  130 29-32
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 103 Neville E, Walker A N, James D G. Prognostic factors predicting the outcome of sarcoidosis: an analysis of 818 patients.  Q J Med. 1983;  52 525-533
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 104 Nishiyama Y, Yamamoto Y, Fukunaga K et al. Comparative evaluation of 18F-FDG PET and 67Ga scintigraphy in patients with sarcoidosis.  J Nucl Med. 2006;  47 1571-1576
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 105 Keijsers R G, Grutters J C, van Velzen-Blad H et al. (18)F-FDG PET patterns and BAL cell profiles in pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging.. 2010;  37 1181-1188
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 106 Teirstein A S, Machac J, Almeida O et al. Results of 188 whole-body fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography scans in 137 patients with sarcoidosis.  Chest. 2007;  132 1949-1953
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 107 Costable U, Guzman J, Drent M. Diagnostic approach to sarcoidosis. In: Drent M, Costabel U, eds. Sarcoidosis. Eur Respir Mon; 2005: 259-264
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 108 Kantrow S P, Meyer K C, Kidd P et al. The CD4/CD8 ratio in BAL fluid is highly variable in sarcoidosis.  Eur Respir J. 1997;  10 2716-2721
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 109 Hunninghake G W, Crystal R G. Pulmonary sarcoidosis: a disorder mediated by excess helper T-lymphocyte activity at sites of disease activity.  N Engl J Med. 1981;  305 429-434
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 110 Winterbauer R H, Lammert J, Selland M et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage cell populations in the diagnosis of sarcoidosis.  Chest. 1993;  9 211-214
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 111 Yeager H, Williams M C, Beekman J F et al. Sarcoidosis: analysis of cells obtained by bronchial lavage.  Am Rev Respir Dis. 1977;  116 951-954
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 112 Costabel U, Zeiss A M, Guzman J. Sensitivity and specifity of BAL findings in sarcoidosis.  Sarcoidosis. 1992;  9 211-214
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 113 Thomeer M, Demendts M. Predictive value of CD4/CD8 ratio in bronchoalveolar lavage in the diagnosis of sarcoidosis.  Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 1997;  14 36
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 114 Ziegenhagen M W, Rothe M, Schlaak M et al. Bronchoalveolar and serological parameters reflecting the severity of newly diagnosed pulmonary Sarcoidosis.  Eur Respir J. 2003;  21 407-413
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 115 Costabel U, Guzman J, Bonella F et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage in other interstitial lung diseases.  Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;  28 514-524
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 116 Gilman M J, Wang K P. Transbronchial lung biopsy in sarcoidosis: an approach to determine the optimal number of biopsies.  Am Rev Respir Dis. 1980;  122 721-724
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 117 Koonitz C H, Joyner L R, Nelson R A. Transbronchial lung biopsy via the fiberoptic bronchoscope in sarcoidosis.  Ann Intern Med. 1976;  85 64-66
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 118 Annema J T, Veselic M, Rabe K F. Endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration for the diagnosis of sarcoidosis.  Eur Respir J. 2005;  25 405-409
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 119 Garwood S, Judson M A, Silvestri G et al. Endobronchial ultrasound for the diagnosis of pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Chest. 2007;  132 1298-1304
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 120 Michael H, Ho S, Pollack B et al. Diagnosis of intra-abdominal and mediastinal sarcoidosis with EUS-guided FNA.  Gastrointest Endosc. 2008;  67 28-34
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 121 Wong M, Yasufuku K, Nakajima T et al. Endobronchial ultrasound: new insight for the diagnosis of sarcoidosis.  Eur Respir J. 2007;  29 1182-1186
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 122 Costabel U, Ohshimo S, Guzman J. Diagnosis of sarcoidosis.  Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2008;  14 455-461
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 123 Dunn T L, Watters L C, Hendrix C et al. Gas exchange at a given degree of volume restriction is different in sarcoidosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.  Am J Med. 1988;  85 221-224
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 124 Lieberman J, Nosal A, Schlessner A et al. Serum angiotensin-converting enzyme for diagnosis an therapeutic evaluation of sarcoidosis.  Am Rev Respi Dis. 1979;  120 329-335
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 125 Baughman R, Costabel U. Markers of sarcoidosis.. In: Baughman R, ed. Sarcoidosis. New York: Taylor & Francis; 2006: 435-462
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 126 Grönhagen-Riska C. Angiotensin-converting enzyme. I. Activity and correlation with serum lysozyme in sarcoidosis, other chest or lymph node diseases and healthy persons.  Scand J Respir Dis. 1979;  60 83-93
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 127 Müller-Quernheim L, Pfeifer S, Strausz J et al. Correlation of clinical an immunologic parameters of the inflammatory activity of pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991;  144 1322-1329
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 128 DeRemee R A, Rohrbach M S. Serum angiotensin-converting enzyme activity in evaluating the clinical course of sarcoidosis.  Ann Intern Med. 1980;  92 361-365
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 129 Loddenkemper R, Klopenborg A, Schoinfeld N et al. Clinical findings in 715 patients with newly detected pulmonary sarcoidosis-results of a cooperative study in former Western Germany and Switzerland.  Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 1998;  15 178-182
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 130 Biller H, Zissel G, Ruprecht B et al. Genotype-corrected reference values for serum angiotensin-converting enzyme.  Eur Respir J.. 2006;  28 1085-1090
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 131 Rothkrantz-Kos S, Dieijen-Visser M P, Mulder P G et al. Potential usefulness of inflammatory markers to monitor respiratory functional impairment in sarcoidosis.  Clin Chem. 2003;  49 1510-1517
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 132 Ziegenhagen M W, Benner U K, Zissel G et al. Sarcoidosis: TNF-alpha release from alveolar macrophages and serum level of sIL-2R are prognostic markers.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;  156 1586-1592
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 133 Arranz O, Ara J, Rodríguez R et al. Serum levels of soluble interleukin-2 receptor in patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis.  J Nephrol. 2000;  13 59-64
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 134 Grutters J C, Fellrath J M, Mulder L et al. Serum soluble interleukin-2 receptor measurement in patients with sarcoidosis: a clinical evaluation.  Chest. 2003;  124 186-195
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 135 Grutters J C, van den Bosch J M. Corticosteroid treatment in sarcoidosis.  Eur Respir J. 2006;  28 627-636
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 136 Gottlieb J E, Israel H L, Steiner R M et al. Outcome in sarcoidosis. The relationship of relapse to corticosteroid therapy.  Chest. 1997;  111 623-631
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 137 Gibson G J, Prescott R J, Muers M F et al. British Thoracic Society Sarcoidosis study: effects of long term corticosteroid treatment.  Thorax. 1996;  51 238-247
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 138 Shabetai R. Sarcoidosis and the Heart.  Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 2000;  2 385-398
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 139 Chapelon-Abric C, de Zuttere D, Duhaut P et al. Cardiac sarcoidosis: a retrospective study of cases.  Medicine. 2004;  83 315-334
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 140 Paramothayan S, Lasserson T J, Walters E H. Immunosuppressive and cytotoxic therapy for pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Cochrane Database Syst Rev.. 2006;  3 CD003536
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 141 Majithia V, Sanders S, Harisdangkul V et al. Successful treatment of sarcoidosis with leflunomide.  Rheumatology (Oxford). 2003;  42 700-702
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 142 Müller-Quernheim J, Kienast K, Held M et al. Treatment of chronic sarcoidosis with an azathioprine/prednisolone regimen.  Eur Respir J. 1999;  14 1117-1722
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 143 Baughman R P, Drent M, Kavuru M et al. Infliximab therapy in patients with chronic sarcoidosis and pulmonary involvement.  Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;  174 795-802
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 144 Baughman R P, Lower E E, Drent M. Inhibitors of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in sarcoidosis: who, what, and how to use them.  Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 2008;  25 76-89
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 145 Utz J P, Limper A H, Kalra S et al. Etanercept for the treatment of stage II and III progressive pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Chest. 2003;  124 177-185
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 146 Pietinalho A, Lindholm A, Haahtela T et al. Inhaled budesonide for treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre study.  Eur Respir J. 1996;  9 406
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 147 Gibson G J, Prescott R J, Muers M F et al. British Thoracic Society Sarcoidosis study: effects of long term corticosteroid treatment.  Thorax. 1996;  51 238-247
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 148 McKinzie B P, Bullington W M, Mazur J E et al. Efficacy of short-course, low-dose corticosteroid therapy for acute pulmonary sarcoidosis exacerbations.  Am J Med Sci. 2010;  339 1-4
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 149 Gottlieb J E, Israel H L, Steiner R M et al. Outcome in sarcoidosis. The relationship of relapse to corticosteroid therapy.  Chest. 1997;  111 623-631
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 150 Johns C J, Michele T M. The clinical management of sarcoidosis: a 50-year experience at the Johns Hopkins hospital.  Medicine. 1999;  78 65-111
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 151 Baughman R P, Winget D B, Lower E E. Methotrexate is steroid sparing in acute sarcoidosis: results of a double blind, randomized trial.  Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 2000;  17 60-66
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 152 Lower E E, Baughman R P. Prolonged use of methotrexate for sarcoidosis.  Arch Intern Med. 1995;  155 846-851
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 153 Vucinic V M. What is the future of methotrexate in sarcoidosis? A study and review.  Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2002;  8 470-476
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 154 Morgan S L, Baggott J E, Vaughn W H et al. Supplementation with folic acid during methotrexate therapy for rheumatoid arthritis.  Ann Intern Med. 1994;  121 833-841
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 155 Muller-Quernheim J, Kienast K, Held M et al. Treatment of chronic sarcoidosis with an azathioprine/prednisolone regimen.  Eur Respir J. 1999;  14 1117-1122
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 156 Lewis S J, Ainslie G M, Bateman E D. Efficacy of azathioprine as second-line treatment in pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 1999;  16 87-92
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 157 Baughman R P, Lower E E. Leflunomide for chronic sarcoidosis.  Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 2004;  21 43-48
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 158 Moravan M, Segal B M. Treatment of CNS sarcoidosis with infliximab and mycophenolate mofetil.  Neurology. 2009;  72 337-340
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 159 Kouba D J, Mimouni D, Rencic A et al. Mycophenolate mofetil may serve as a steroid-sparing agent for sarcoidosis.  Br J Dermatol. 2003;  148 147-148
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 160 Moudgil A, Przygodzki R M, Kher K K. Successful steroid-sparingtreatment of renal limited sarcoidosis with mycophenolate mofetil.  Pediatr Nephrol. 2006;  21 281-285
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 161 Rossman M D, Newman L S, Baughman R P et al. A double-blind, randomized, placebocontrolled trial of infliximab in patients with active pulmonary sarcoidosis.  Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 2006;  23 201-208
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 162 Guyatt G, Gutterman D, Baumann M H et al. Grading strength of recommendations and quality of evidence in clinical guidelines: report from an American College of Chest Physicians task force.  Chest. 2006;  129 174-181
    Suche in Google Scholar

Priv.-Doz. Dr. med. Stefan Pabst

Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik II
Universitätsklinikum Bonn

Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25
53105 Bonn

eMail: stefan.pabst@ukb.uni-bonn.de