Download PDF
J Reconstr Microsurg 2001; 17(3): 211-222
DOI: 10.1055/s-2001-14353
BASIC SCIENCE REVIEW

Copyright © 2001 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA. Tel.: +1(212) 584-4662

Microsurgical Flap Models in the Rat

Feng Zhang, William D. Sones, William C. Lineaweaver
  • Division of Plastic Surgery, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
31 December 2001 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

ABSTRACT

Microsurgical flaps have been widely used in clinical reconstructive surgery. Although these procedures have achieved great clinical success, utilization of microsurgical flap techniques have also led to a number of basic questions that researchers must now attempt to answer. The rat has been the source of many flap models in these investigations. This article provides a condensed description of the procedures, anatomic data, and research applications for skin, muscle, myocutaneous, bone, osteomuscular, and osteomyocutaneous microsurgical flap models in the rat.

KEYWORD

Skin flap models - muscle - myocutaneous - microsurgical transplantation - outcomes

REFERENCES

  • 1 Lineaweaver W C. The history of reconstructive microsurgery-a conceptual approach.  SGH Proc . 1998;  7 36-47
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 2 Khouri R K, Shaw W W. Reconstruction of the lower extremity with microvascular free flaps: a 10-year experience with 304 consecutive cases.  J Trauma . 1989;  29 1086-1094
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 3 Oliva A, Lineaweaver W C, Buncke H J. Salvage of wounds following failed tissue transplantation.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1993;  9 257-263
    Thieme ConnectPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 4 Buncke H J. Microsurgical research-a personal experience.  Microsurgery . 1995;  16 186-190
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 5 Lee S. An improved technique of renal transplantation in the rat.  Surgery . 1967;  61 771-773
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 6 Lee S, Edgington T S. Liver transplantation in the rat.  Surg Forum . 1966;  17 220-222
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 7 Lee S, Willoughby W F, Smallwood C J. Heterotopic heart and lung transplantation in the rat.  Am J Pathol . 1970;  59 279-298
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 8 Jacobson J H, Suarez E L. Microsurgery in anastomosis of small vessels.  Surg Forum . 1960;  9 243
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 9 Buncke Jr J H, Buncke C M, Schulz W P. Immediate Nicoladoni procedure in the Rhesus monkey, or hallux-to-hand transplantation, utilizing microminiature vascular anastomoses.  Br J Plast Surg . 1966;  19 332-337
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 10 Angel M F, Mellow C G, Knight K R. Biochemical analysis of acutely ischemic skin flaps.  Curr Surg . 1990;  47 272-273
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 11 Zhang F, Lineaweaver W C, Ustuner T. Comparison of muscle mass preservation in denervated muscle and transplanted muscle flaps after motor and sensory reinnervation and neurotization.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1997;  99 803-814
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 12 Wells M D, Kerrigan C L. Experimental reconstruction of cutaneous defects with microvascular jejunal transplants.  Br J Plast Surg . 1989;  42 425-428
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 13 He W, Neligan P, Lipa J. Comparison of secondary ischemic tolerance between pedicled and free island buttock skin flaps in the pig.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1997;  100 72-81
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 14 Godden D, Little R, Weston A. Catecholamine sensitivity in the rat femoral artery after microvascular anastomosis.  Microsurgery . 2000;  20 217-220
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 15 Quirinia A, Gottrup F, Viidik A. Failure of buflomedil to improve wound healing in ischaemic skin flaps.  Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg . 1996;  30 81-87
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 16 Zhang F, Lineaweaver W C, Kao S D. Manual of Experimental Muscle Flap and Organ Transplantations Models in the Rat.  Reading: Sharpoint 1995
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 17 Dunn R M, Mancoll J. Flap models in the rat: a review and reappraisal.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1992;  90 319-328
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 18 Yim K K, Lineaweaver W C. Microvascular muscle and myocutaneous transplantation models in the rat.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1994;  10 261-267
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 19 Goldwyn R M, Lamb D L, White W L. An experimental study of large island flaps in dogs.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1963;  31 528-536
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 20 Strauch B, Murray D E. Transfer of composite graft with immediate suture anastomosis of its vascular pedicle measuring less than 1 mm in external diameter using microsurgical techniques.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1967;  40 325-329
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 21 Padubidri A N, Browne E. Modification in flap design of the epigastric artery flap in rats-a new experimental flap model.  Ann Plast Surg . 1997;  39 500-504
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 22 Petry J J, Wortham K A. The anatomy of the epigastric flap in the experimental rat.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1984;  74 410-413
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 23 Khouri R K, Upton J, Shaw W W. Prefabrication of composite free flaps through staged microvascular transfer: an experimental and clinical study.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1991;  87 108-115
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 24 Chow S P, Chen D Z, Gu Y D. The significance of venous drainage in free flap transfer.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1993;  91 713-715
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 25 Gherardini G, Lundeberg T, Matarasso A. Calcitonin gene-related peptide increases microcirculation after mechanically induced ischemia in an experimental island flap.  Ann Plast Surg . 1995;  35 178-183
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 26 Gherardini G, Evans G R, Theodorsson E. Calcitonin gene-related peptide in experimental ischemia: implication of an endogenous anti-ischemic effect.  Ann Plast Surg . 1996;  36 616-620
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 27 Machens H G, Morgan J R, Berthiaume F. Genetically modified fibroblasts induce angiogenesis in the rat epigastric island flap.  Langenbecks Arch Surg . 1998;  383 345-350
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 28 Weinzweig N, Lukash F, Weinzweig J. Topical and systemic calcium channel blockers in the prevention and treatment of microvascular spasm in a rat epigastric island skin flap model.  Ann Plast Surg . 1999;  42 320-326
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 29 Yenidunya M O, Yilmaz S. Arteriovenous fistula and skin flaps.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1999;  15 555-562
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 30 Black K S, Hewitt C W, Grisham G R. Two new composite tissue allograft models in rats to study neuromuscular functional return.  Transplant Proc . 1987;  19 1118-1119
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 31 Tonken H P, Zhang F, Sudekum A E. Microvascular transplant of the gastrocnemius muscle in rats.  Microsurgery . 1993;  14 120-124
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 32 Mathes S J, Nahai F. Classification of the vascular anatomy of muscles: experimental and clinical correlation.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1981;  67 177-187
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 33 Paletta J D, Atabay K, Bentz M L. Microvascular transfer of the combined gastrocnemius-soleus muscle flap in the rat.  Ann Plast Surg . 1998;  41 535-7
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 34 Tan C M, Yaremchuk M J, Randolph M A. Vascularized muscle allografts and the role of cyclosporine.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1991;  87 412-418
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 35 Siemionow M, Latifoglu O, Demirkan F. Assessment of muscle flap sensibility by evoked potentials in the rat.  Microsurgery . 2000;  20 85-93
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 36 Tilgner A, Herrberger U, Oswald P. Myocutaneous flap models in the rat: anatomy, histology and operative technique of the latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap.  Z Versuchstierkd . 1988;  31 225-232
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 37 de la Pena A J, Lineaweaver W, Buncke H J. Microvascular transfers of latissimus dorsi and serratus anterior muscles in rats.  Microsurgery . 1988;  9 18-20
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 38 Fan L K, Wang C, Hansen W. Hsp72 induction: a potential molecular mediator of the delay phenomenon.  Ann Plast Surg . 2000;  44 65-71
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 39 Carroll C M, Carroll S M, Overgoor M L. Acute ischemic preconditioning of skeletal muscle prior to flap elevation augments muscle-flap survival.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1997;  100 58-65
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 40 Kusumoto K, Bessho K, Fujimura K. Prefabricated muscle flap including bone induced by recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2: an experimental study of ectopic osteoinduction in a rat latissimus dorsi muscle flap.  Br J Plast Surg . 1998;  51 275-280
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 41 Becker M H, Lassner F, Dagtekin F Z. Morphometric changes in free neurovascular latissimus dorsi flaps: an experimental study.  Microsurgery . 1995;  16 786-792
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 42 Werker P M, Kon M, Green C J. Cold (0 degree C) ischaemic tolerance of latissimus dorsi free flaps in rats: a macroscopic and morphological study.  Microsurgery . 1994;  15 187-189
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 43 Yim K, Lineaweaver W C, Silverman D G. Muscle flap monitoring in a rat model with a variable gain quantitative fluorometer.  Ann Plast Surg . 1992;  28 511-515
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 44 Angel M F, Khazanchi R K, O'Brien B M. The anatomy of the subscapular artery and its effects on flap design in the rabbit.  Ann Plast Surg . 1990;  24 152-155
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 45 Yim K, Gencosmanoglu R, Lineaweaver W C. Muscle and myocutaneous flaps in rats. In: Carraro U, Salmons S (eds): Basic and Applied Myology Padova: Unipress 1991: 363
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 46 Dunn R M, Huff W, Mancoll J. The rat rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap: a true myocutaneous flap model.  Ann Plast Surg . 1993;  31 352-357
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 47 Yim K, Lineaweaver W C, Briones R. Critical ischemia time of rat serratus anterior and gracilis muscles. In: Carraro U, Salmons S (eds): Basic and Applied Myology Padova: Unipress 1991: 373
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 48 Dautel G, Lineaweaver W, Campagna-Pinto D. Preservation of transplanted muscle mass by motor and sensory reinnervation. In: Freilinger G, Deutinger M (eds): Transactions of the Third Vienna Muscle Symposium Vienna: Blackwell MZV 1992: 96
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 49 Briones F, Lineaweaver W C, Newlin L. Single pedicle microvascular transfers of the serratus anterior and latissimus dorsi muscle in rats.  Microsurgery . 1989;  10 269-273
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 50 Dautel G, Braga da Silva J, Merle M. Pedicled or free flap transfer in rats.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1991;  7 23-27
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 51 Yim K K, Lineaweaver W C, Siko P P, Buncke H J. Microvascular transfer of anterior and posterior gracilis muscles in rats.  Microsurgery . 1991;  12 262-265
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 52 Atabay K, Hong C, Bentz M L. Variations in the vascular pedicle of the rat gracilis muscle flap.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1995;  11 265-269
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 53 Yeh L S, Hou S M, Lin A C, Lin J. A modified free gracilis flap in the rat.  Microsurgery . 1994;  15 322-326
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 54 Ionac M, Geishauser M. The combined gracilis and semitendinosus free flap in the rat.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1998;  14 237-243
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 55 Larson J L, Stephenson L L, Zamboni W A. Effect of hyperbaric oxygen on neutrophil CD18 expression.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 2000;  105 1375-1381
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 56 Lille S, Boyle Jr M E, Schoeller T. Augmentation of cAMP improves muscle-flap survival and tissue inflammation in response to ischemia/reperfusion injury.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1999;  15 37-45
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 57 Zhang F, Attkiss K J, Walker M, Buncke H J. Effect of cryopreservation on survival of composite tissue grafts.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1998;  14 559-564
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 58 Zhang F, Ho P R, Chin B T. Effect of vein grafting on the survival of microvascularly transplanted muscle flaps.  Microsurgery . 1996;  17 512-516
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 59 Zhan C W, Suzuki Y, Kitahara A K. Prolongation of ischaemic tolerance of rat skeletal muscle by trehalose.  Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg . 1997;  31 197-201
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 60 Khouri R K, Koudsi B, Reddi H. Tissue transformation into bone in vivo: a potential practical application.  JAMA . 1991;  266 1953-1955
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 61 Koudsi B, Khouri R K. Thigh adductor flap: an experimental model for free flap transfer in the rat.  Microsurgery . 1992;  13 338-339
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 62 Fayad J, Kuriloff D B. Prefabricated microvascular autograft in tracheal reconstruction.  Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg . 1994;  111 396-406
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 63 Wolff K D, Stiller D. Functional aspects of free muscle transplantation: atrophy, reinnervation, and metabolism.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1992;  8 137-142
    Thieme ConnectPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 64 Werker P M, Kon M. Cutaneous trunci myocutaneous flap: a new and reliable model for muscle free flap research in the rat.  Microsurgery . 1992;  13 204-207
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 65 Li X, Cooley B C, Gruel S M. Free flap transfer of the cutaneous maximus muscle in the rat: comparison to the latissimus dorsi muscle flap.  Microsurgery . 1992;  13 208-213
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 66 Greene E C. Anatomy of the Rat>. New York: Hafner Publishing Company 1963
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 67 Li X, Cooley B C, Gould J S. Ex vivo perfusion with anticoagulated blood decreases ischemia/reperfusion injury.  J Hand Surg . 1993;  18A 629-634
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 68 Blanchard J, Massad M, Sekosan M. A new rat model to study the correlation of cardiac and skeletal muscle allograft rejection.  Microsurgery . 1998;  18 406-409
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 69 Cooley B C, Hanel D P, Lan M. The influence of diabetes on free flap transfer. II. The effect of ischemia on flap survival.  Ann Plast Surg . 1992;  29 65-69
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 70 Zhang F, Lineaweaver W C, Kao S. Microvascular transfer of the rectus abdominis muscle and myocutaneous flap in rats.  Microsurgery . 1993;  14 420-423
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 71 Dunn R M, Huff W, Mancoll J. The rat rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap: a true myocutaneous flap model.  Ann Plast Surg . 1993;  31 352-357
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 72 Hallock G G. Skin recycling following neovascularization using the rat musculocutaneous flap model.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1991;  88 673-680
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 73 Lineaweaver W C. Re: The rat rectus abdominus myocutaneous flap: a true myocutaneous flap model.  Ann Plast Surg . 1994;  32 447-448
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 74 Slavin S A, Van den Abbeele D A, Losken A. Return of lymphatic function after flap transfer for acute lymphedema.  Ann Surg . 1999;  229 421-427
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 75 Gencosmanoglu R, Yim K, Lineaweaver W C. Comparison of arterialized venous muscle flaps and arteriovenous flow reversal flaps in a rat model. In: Carraro U, Salmons S (eds): Basic and Applied Myology Padova: Unipress 1991: 379
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 76 Zhang F, Kao S D, Walker R, Lineaweaver W C. Pectoralis major muscle free flap in the rat model.  Microsurgery . 1994;  15 853-856
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 77 Matsuda H, Hata Y, Matsuka K. Pectoralis major myocutaneous flaps in rats.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1995;  11 439-445
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 78 Dogan T, Kryger Z, Zhang F. Quadriceps femoris muscle flap: largest muscle flap model in the rat.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1999;  15 433-437
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 79 Linsell M, Jablonski P, Howden B. The thigh flap: an osteomyocutaneous free-flap model in the rat.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1988;  81 240-245
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 80 Mutaf M, Yukihiro T, Arakaki M, Fujii T. A true osteomyocutaneous free-flap model in rats: the saphenous artery osteomyocutaneous flap.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1995;  96 1629-1635
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 81 Rucker M, Roesken F, Schafer T. In vivo analysis of the microcirculation of osteomyocutaneous flaps using fluorescence microscopy.  Br J Plast Surg . 1999;  52 644-652
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 82 Chen S G, Xu X Z, Zhang F. Free vascularized fibular bone flap in the rat.  Microsurgery . 2000;  20 1-5
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 83 Chen S G, Zhang F, Komorowska-Timek E. Free microvascular transfer of the acromiotrapezius osteomuscular flap in rats.  Br J Plast Surg . 2000;  53 612-625
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 84 Zhang F, Lineaweaver W C, Kao S. The greater omentum transplantation model in the rat.  Microsurgery . 1994;  15 269-273
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 85 Sonmez K, Basaklar A C, Turkyilmaz Z. Neovascularization of the testicle through spermatic vessels by omental pedicle flap: a new experimental model.  J Pediatr Surg . 1995;  30 1654-1657
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 86 Zhang L, Michaels B M, Bakshandeh N. Prefabricated flap size limitations utilizing an omental carrier.  Microsurgery . 1994;  15 568-570
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 87 Akyurek M, Safak T, Kayikcioglu A. A new flap model in the rat: the pectoral skin flap.  Ann Plast Surg . 1999;  42 185-192
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 88 Yang D, Morris S F. An extended dorsal island skin flap with multiple vascular territories in the rat: a new skin flap model.  J Surg Res . 1999;  87 164-170
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 89 Dogan T, Zhang F, Komorowska-Timek E. Saphenous neurocutaneous island flap model in the rat: evaluation of vascular supply.  Ann Plast Surg . 1999;  43 416-420
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 90 Akyurek M, Safak T, Manavbasi I, Kecik A. A rat musculocutaneous flap model: the biceps femoris musculocutaneous flap.  Ann Plast Surg . 2000;  45 305-312
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 91 Battal M N, Hata Y, Matsuka K. A new experimental model of a true myocutaneous flap in the rat: the gluteus maximus myocutaneous flap.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1997;  13 251-255
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 92 Ozgentas H E, Shenaq S, Spira M. Development of a TRAM flap model in the rat and study of vascular dominance.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1994;  94 1012-1017
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 93 Sempuku T, Tamai S, Mizumoto S, Yajima H. Vascularized tail bone grafts in rats.  Plast Reconstr Surg . 1993;  91 502-510
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 94 Bodor R, Yoleri L, Zhang F. Blood-flow velocity as a factor in postoperative microvascular patency.  J Reconstr Microsurg . 1997;  13 463-470
    Thieme ConnectPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 95 Komorowska-Timek E, Chen S G, Zhang F. Prolonged perivascular use of verapamil or lidocaine decreases skin flap necrosis.  Ann Plast Surg . 1999;  43 283-288
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 96 Ciresi K F, Mathes S J. The classification of flaps.  Orthop Clin North Am . 1993;  24 383-391
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 97 McCraw J B, Vasconez L O. Musculocutaneous flaps: principles.  Clin Plast Surg . 1980;  7 9-13
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 98 Cormack G C, Lamberty B G. A classification of fascio-cutaneous flaps according to their patterns of vascularisation.  Br J Plast Surg . 1984;  37 80-87
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 99 Tilgner A, Herrberger U. Myocutaneous flap models in the rat: anatomy, histology and preparation technique of the myocutaneous rectus abdominis flap.  Z Versuchstierkd . 1987;  29 231-236
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar