RSS-Feed abonnieren
DOI: 10.1055/a-1180-3692
Returning to Play after Prolonged Training Restrictions in Professional Collision Sports
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 has resulted in widespread training disruption in many sports. Some athletes have access to facilities and equipment, while others have limited or no access, severely limiting their training practices. A primary concern is that the maintenance of key physical qualities (e. g. strength, power, high-speed running ability, acceleration, deceleration and change of direction), game-specific contact skills (e. g. tackling) and decision-making ability, are challenged, impacting performance and injury risk on resumption of training and competition. In extended periods of reduced training, without targeted intervention, changes in body composition and function can be profound. However, there are strategies that can dramatically mitigate potential losses, including resistance training to failure with lighter loads, plyometric training, exposure to high-speed running to ensure appropriate hamstring conditioning, and nutritional intervention. Athletes may require psychological support given the challenges associated with isolation and a change in regular training routine. While training restrictions may result in a decrease in some physical and psychological qualities, athletes can return in a positive state following an enforced period of rest and recovery. On return to training, the focus should be on progression of all aspects of training, taking into account the status of individual athletes.
Publikationsverlauf
Eingereicht: 14. Mai 2020
Angenommen: 14. Mai 2020
Artikel online veröffentlicht:
29. Mai 2020
© 2020. Thieme. All rights reserved.
Georg Thieme Verlag KG
Rüdigerstraße 14, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany
-
References
- 1 Whitehead S, Till K, Weaving D. et al. The use of micro-technology to quantify the peak match-demands of the football codes: A systematic review. Sports Med 2018; 48: 2549-2575
- 2 Till K, Scantlebury S, Jones B. Anthropometric and physical qualities of elite male youth rugby league players. Sports Med 2017; 47: 2171-2186
- 3 McMaster DT, Gill N, Cronin J. et al. The development, retention and decay rates of strength and power in elite rugby union, rugby league and American football. Sports Med 2013; 43: 367-384
- 4 Argus CK, Gill ND, Keogh JW. et al. Changes in strength, power, and steroid hormones during a professional rugby union competition. J Strength Cond Res 2009; 23: 1583-1592
- 5 Gannon EA, Stokes KA, Trewartha G. Strength and power development in professional rugby union players over a training and playing season. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2016; 11: 381-387
- 6 Myer GD, Faigenbaum AD, Cherny CE. et al. Did the NFL Lockout expose the Achilles heel of competitive sports?. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2011; 41: 702-705
-
7
Binney ZO,
Hammond KE,
Klein M.
et al. NFL injuries before and after the 2011 Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA)
arXiv:1805.01271v1 [stat.AP] 3 May 2018
- 8 Argus CK, Gill ND, Keogh JW. Characterization of the differences in strength and power between different levels of competition in rugby union athletes. J Strength Cond Res 2012; 26: 2698-2704
-
9
Geeson-Brown T,
Jones B,
Till K.
et al. Body composition differences by age and playing standard in male rugby union and
rugby league: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Sports Sci 2020; Epub Ahead of print
- 10 Milsom J, Naughton R, O'Boyle A. et al. Body composition assessment of English Premier League soccer players: A comparative DXA analysis of first team, U21 and U18 squads. J Sports Sci 2015; 33: 1799-1806
- 11 Darrall-Jones J, Jones B, Till K. Anthropometric, sprint and running profiles of English academy rugby union players by position. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 30: 1348-1358
- 12 Darrall-Jones J, Till K, Roe G. et al. The effect of body mass on 30:15 end stage running speed in rugby union players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2016; 11: 400-403
- 13 Suchomel TJ, Nimphius S, Stone MH. The importance of muscular strength in athletic performance. Sports Med 2016; 46: 1419-1449
- 14 Speranza MJ, Gabbett TJ, Johnston RD. et al. Muscular strength and power correlates of tackling ability in semiprofessional rugby league players. J Strength Cond Res 2015; 29: 2071-2078
- 15 Speranza MJ, Gabbett TJ, Johnston RD. et al. Effect of strength and power training on tackling ability in semiprofessional rugby league players. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 30: 336-343
- 16 Darrall-Jones JD, Jones B, Till K. Anthropometric and physical profiles of English academy rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res 2015; 29: 2086-2096
- 17 Till K, Jones B, Geeson-Brown T. Do physical qualities influence the attainment of professional status within elite 16-19 year old rugby league players?. J Sci Med Sport 2016; 19: 585-589
- 18 Smart DJ, Hopkins WG, Gill ND. Differences and changes in the physical characteristics of professional and amateur rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res 2013; 27: 3033-3044
- 19 Johnston RD, Weaving D, Hulin BT. et al. Peak movement and collision demands of professional rugby league competition. J Sports Sci 2019; 37: 2144-2151
- 20 Meeuwisse WH, Tyreman H, Hagel B. et al. A dynamic model of etiology in sport injury: the recursive nature of risk and causation. Clin J Sport Med 2007; 17: 215-219
- 21 Windt J, Gabbett TJ. How do training and competition workloads relate to injury? The workload-injury aetiology model. Br J Sports Med 2017; 51: 428-435
- 22 Achenbach L, Laver L, Walter SS. et al. Decreased external rotation strength is a risk factor for overuse shoulder injury in youth elite handball athletes. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2020; 28: 1202-1211
- 23 Whittaker JL, Small C, Maffey L. et al. Risk factors for groin injury in sport: An updated systematic review. Br J Sports Med 2015; 49: 803-809
- 24 Pizzari T, Green B, van Dyk N. Extrinsic and intrinsic risk factors associated with hamstring injury. In: Thorborg K, Opar D, Shield A Eds. Prevention and Rehabilitation of Hamstring Injuries. Springer Nature Switzerland AG; 2020: 83-115
- 25 van Dyk N, Behan FP, Whiteley R. Including the Nordic hamstring exercise in injury prevention programs halves the rate of hamstring injuries: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 8459 athletes. Br J Sports Med 2019; 53: 1362-1370
- 26 Malone S, Roe M, Doran D. et al. High chronic training loads and exposure to bouts of maximal velocity running reduce injury risk in elite Gaelic football. J Sci Med Sport 2017; 20: 250-254
- 27 Malone S, Owen A, Mendes B. et al. High-speed running and sprinting as an injury risk factor in soccer: Can well-developed physical qualities reduce the risk?. J Sci Med Sport 2018; 21: 257-262
- 28 Ruddy JD, Pollard CW, Timmins RG. et al. Running exposure is associated with the risk of hamstring strain injury in elite Australian footballers. Br J Sports Med 2018; 52: 919-928
- 29 Williams S, Trewartha G, Kemp S. et al. A meta-analysis of injuries in senior men's professional Rugby Union. Sports Med 2013; 43: 1043-1055
- 30 Stokes KA, Locke D, Roberts S. et al. Does reducing the height of the tackle through law change in elite men’s rugby union (The Championship, England) reduce the incidence of concussion? A controlled study in 126 games. Br J Sports Med 2019; Epub ahead of print
- 31 West SW, Williams S, Kemp SPT. et al. Patterns of training volume and injury risk in elite rugby union: An analysis of 1.5 million hours of training exposure over eleven seasons. J Sports Sci 2020; 38: 238-247
- 32 Gabbett TJ, Ullah S, Finch CF. Identifying risk factors for contact injury in professional rugby league players - application of a frailty model for recurrent injury. J Sci Med Sport 2012; 15: 496-504
- 33 Lauersen JB, Andersen TE, Andersen LB. Strength training as superior, dose-dependent and safe prevention of acute and overuse sports injuries: A systematic review, qualitative analysis and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2018; 52: 1557-1563
- 34 Coppack RJ, Etherington J, Wills AK. The effects of exercise for the prevention of overuse anterior knee pain: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med 2011; 39: 940-948
- 35 Askling C, Karlsson J, Thorstensson A. Hamstring injury occurrence in elite soccer players after preseason strength training with eccentric overload. Scan J Med Sci Sports 2003; 13: 244-250
- 36 Petersen J, Thorborg K, Neilsen MB. et al. Preventive effect of eccentric training on acute hamstring injuries in men’s soccer: A cluster-randomized controlled trial. Am J Sports Med 2011; 39: 2296-2303
- 37 van den Horst N, Smits DW, Petersen J. et al. The preventive effect of the Nordic hamstring exercise on hamstring injuries in amateur soccer players: A randomised controlled trial. Am J Sports Med 2015; 43: 1316-1323
- 38 Walden M, Atroshi I, Magnussen H. et al. Prevention of acute knee injuries in adolescent female football players: Cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2012; 344: e3042
- 39 Zouita S, Zouita AB, Kebsi W. et al. Strength training reduces injury rate in elite young soccer players during one season. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 30: 1295-1307
-
40 Rugby Football Union. Activate On the internet: https://www.englandrugby.com/participation/coaching/activate; accessed 4 May 2020
- 41 Hislop MD, Stokes KA, Williams S. et al. Reducing musculoskeletal injury and concussion risk in schoolboy rugby players with a pre-activity movement control exercise programme: A cluster randomised controlled trial. Br J Sports Med 2017; 51: 1140-1146
- 42 Attwood MJ, Roberts SP, Trewartha G. et al. Efficacy of a movement control injury prevention programme in adult men’s community rugby union: A cluster randomised controlled trial. Br J Sports Med 2018; 52: 368-374
- 43 Collins CL, Fletcher EN, Fields SK. Neck strength: A protective factor reducing risk for concussion in high school sports. J Prim Prev 2014; 35: 309-319
- 44 Bengtsson H, Ekstrand J, Waldén M. et al. Muscle injury rate in professional football is higher in matches played within 5 days since the previous match: A 14-year prospective study with more than 130 000 match observations. Br J Sports Med 2018; 52: 1116-1122
- 45 Cross MJ, Williams S, Trewartha G. et al. The influence of in-season training loads on injury risk in professional rugby union. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2016; 11: 350-355
- 46 Williams S, Trewartha G, Kemp SPT. et al. How much rugby is too much? A seven-season prospective cohort study of match exposure and injury risk in professional rugby union players. Sports Med 2017; 47: 2395-2402
- 47 Williams S, Trewartha G, Kemp S. et al. Subsequent injuries and early recurrent diagnoses in elite rugby union players. Int J Sports Med 2017; 38: 791-798
- 48 Shrier I. Strategic Assessment of Risk and Risk Tolerance (StARRT) framework for return-to-play decision-making. Br J Sports Med 2015; 49: 1311-1315
- 49 Li H, Moreland JJ, Peek-Asa C. et al. Preseason anxiety and depressive symptoms and prospective injury risk in collegiate athletes. Am J Sports Med 2017; 45: 2148-2155
- 50 Wall BT, Morton JP, van Loon LJ. Strategies to maintain skeletal muscle mass in the injured athlete: nutritional considerations and exercise mimetics. Eur J Sport Sci 2015; 15: 53-62
- 51 Mitchell JH, Levine BD, McGuire DK. The Dallas bed rest and training study: Revisited after 50 years. Circulation. 2019; 140: 1293-1295
- 52 Mujika I, Padilla S. Detraining: Loss of training-induced physiological and performance adaptations. Part 1: Short term insufficient training stimulus. Sports Med 2000; 30: 79-87
- 53 Dirks ML, Wall BT, van de Valk B. et al. One week of bed rest leads to substantial muscle atrophy and induces whole-body insulin resistance in the absence of skeletal muscle lipid accumulation. Diabetes 2016; 65: 2862-2875
- 54 Dirks ML, Wall BT, Otten B. et al. High-fat overfeeding does not exacerbate rapid changes in forearm glucose and fatty acid balance during immobilization. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020; 105: dgz049
- 55 Kilroe SP, Fulford J, Holwerda AM. et al. Short-term muscle disuse induces a rapid and sustained decline in daily myofibrillar protein synthesis rates. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2020; 318: E117-E130
- 56 Wall BT, Cruz AM, Otten B. et al. The impact of disuse and high-fat overfeeding on forearm muscle amino acid metabolism in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020; 105: dgaa184
- 57 Wall BT, Dirks ML, Snijders T. et al. Short-term muscle disuse lowers myofibrillar protein synthesis rates and induces anabolic resistance to protein ingestion. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2016; 310: E137-E147
- 58 Wall BT, van Loon LJ. Nutritional strategies to attenuate muscle disuse atrophy. Nutr Rev 2013; 71: 195-208
- 59 Kilroe SP, Fulford J, Holwerda AM. et al. Short-term muscle disuse induces a rapid and sustained decline in daily myofibrillar protein synthesis rates. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2020; 318: E117-E130
- 60 Kilroe SP, Fulford J, Jackman SR. et al. Temporal muscle-specific disuse atrophy during one week of leg immobilization. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020; 52: 944-954
- 61 LeBlanc AD, Schneider VS, Evans HJ. et al. Regional changes in muscle mass following 17 weeks of bed rest. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1992; 73: 2172-2178
- 62 Cohen S, Nathan JA, Goldberg AL. Muscle wasting in disease: Molecular mechanisms and promising therapies. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2015; 14: 58-74
- 63 Snijders T, Wall BT, Dirks ML. et al. Muscle disuse atrophy is not accompanied by changes in skeletal muscle satellite cell content. Clin Sci (Lond) 2014; 126: 557-566
- 64 Andersen LL, Andersen JL, Magnusson SP. et al. Neuromuscular adaptations to detraining following resistance training in previously untrained subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol 2005; 93: 511-518
- 65 Rittweger J, Winwood K, Seynnes O. et al. Bone loss from the human distal tibia epiphysis during 24 days of unilateral lower limb suspension. J Physiol 2006; 577: 331-337
- 66 Dideriksen K, Boesen AP, Reitelseder S. et al. Tendon collagen synthesis declines with immobilization in elderly humans: No effect of anti-inflammatory medication. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2017; 122: 273-282
- 67 de Boer MD, Maganaris CN, Seynnes OR. et al. Time course of muscular, neural and tendinous adaptations to 23 day unilateral lower-limb suspension in young men. J Physiol 2007; 583: 1079-1091
- 68 Kubo K, Ikebukuro T, Maki A. et al. Time course of changes in the human Achilles tendon properties and metabolism during training and detraining in vivo. Eur J Appl Physiol 2012; 112: 2679-2691
- 69 Milsom J, Barreira P, Burgess DJ. et al. Case study: Muscle atrophy and hypertrophy in a premier league soccer player during rehabilitation from ACL injury. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2014; 24: 543-552
- 70 Anderson L, Close GL, Konopinski M. et al. Case study: Muscle atrophy, hypertrophy, and energy expenditure of a premier league soccer player during rehabilitation from anterior cruciate ligament injury. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2019; 29: 559-566
- 71 García-Pallarés J, Sánchez-Medina L, Carrasco L. et al. Endurance and neuromuscular changes in world-class level kayakers during a periodized training cycle. Eur J Appl Physiol 2009; 106: 629-638
- 72 Trappe S, Trappe T, Gallagher P. et al. Human single muscle fiber function with 84 day bed-rest and resistance exercise. J Physiol 2004; 557: 501-513
- 73 Kramer A, Kümmel J, Mulder E. et al. High-intensity jump training is tolerated during 60 days of bed rest and is very effective in preserving leg power and lean body mass: An overview of the cologne RSL study. PLoS One 2017; 12: e0169793
- 74 Morton RW, Sonne MW, Farias Zuniga A. et al. Muscle fiber activation is unaffected by load and repetition duration when resistance exercise is performed to task failure. J Physiol 2019; 597: 4601-4613
- 75 Burd NA, West DW, Staples AW. et al. Low-load high volume resistance exercise stimulates muscle protein synthesis more than high-load low volume resistance exercise in young men. PLoS One 2010; 5: e12033
- 76 Mitchell CJ, Churchward-Venne TA, West DW. et al. Resistance exercise load does not determine training-mediated hypertrophic gains in young men. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2012; 113: 71-77
- 77 Lasevicius T, Schoenfeld B, Silva-Batista C. et al. Muscle failure promotes greater muscle hypertrophy in low-load but not in high-load resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2019;
- 78 Kubo K, Ikebukuro T, Yata H. Effects of 4, 8, and 12 Repetition maximum resistance training protocols on muscle volume and strength. J Strength Cond Res. 2020;
- 79 Morton RW, Oikawa SY, Wavell CG. et al. Neither load nor systemic hormones determine resistance training-mediated hypertrophy or strength gains in resistance-trained young men. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2016; 121: 129-138
- 80 Oxfeldt M, Overgaard K, Hvid LG. et al. Effects of plyometric training on jumping, sprint performance, and lower body muscle strength in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analyses. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2019; 29: 1453-1465
- 81 Colliander EB, Tesch PA. Effects of detraining following short term resistance training on eccentric and concentric muscle strength. Acta Physiol Scand 1992; 144: 23-29
- 82 Wilson JM, Marin PJ, Rhea MR. et al. Concurrent training: A meta-analysis examining interference of aerobic and resistance exercises. J Strength Cond Res 2012; 26: 2293-2307
- 83 Hickson RC. Interference of strength development by simultaneously training for strength and endurance. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1980; 45: 255-263
- 84 Mendiguchia J, Conceição F, Edouard P. et al. Sprint versus isolated eccentric training: Comparative effects on hamstring architecture and performance in soccer players. PLoS One 2020; 15: e0228283
- 85 Haugen T, Seiler S, Sandbakk Ø. et al. The training and development of elite sprint performance: An integration of scientific and best practice literature. Sports Med Open 2019; 5: 44
- 86 Narici MV, Roi GS, Landoni L. et al. Changes in force, cross-sectional area and neural activation during strength training and detraining of the human quadriceps. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1989; 59: 310-319
- 87 Brooks SK, Webster RK, Smith LE. et al. The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. Lancet 2020; 395: 912-920
- 88 Brewer BW, Van Raalte JL, Linder DE. Athletic identity: Hercules’ muscles or Achilles heel?. Int J Sport Psychol 1993; 24: 237-254
- 89 Park S, Lavallee D, Tod D. Athletes’ career transition out of sport: A systematic review. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol 2013; 6: 22-53
- 90 McEwan D, Beauchamp MR. Teamwork in sport: A theoretical and integrative review. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol 2014; 7: 229-250
- 91 Buchheit M, Morgan W, Wallace J. et al. Physiological, psychometric, and performance effects of the Christmas break in Australian football. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2015; 10: 120-123
- 92 Bompa TO, Buzzichelli C. Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2018
- 93 Grout H, Long G. Improving Teaching and Learning in Physical Education. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Education; 2009
- 94 Mujika I, Halson S, Burke LM. et al. An integrated, multifactorial approach to periodization for optimal performance in individual and team sports. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2018; 13: 538-561
- 95 Farrow D, Robertson S. Development of a skill acquisition periodisation framework for high-performance sport. Sports Med 2017; 47: 1043-1054
- 96 Martin KA, Moritz SE, Hall CR. Imagery use in sport: A literature review and applied model. Sport Psychol 1999; 13: 245-268
- 97 Bruton AM, Mellalieu SD, Shearer DA. Observation interventions as a means to manipulate collective efficacy in groups. J Sport Exerc Psychol 2014; 36: 27-39
- 98 Mellalieu SD, Sellars PA, Wagstaff CRD. et al. Understanding the psychological load and successful coping of rugby union players in the English professional game. Internal report Cardiff Metropolitan University, UK. 2020. unpublished
- 99 Eccles D, Balk Y, Gretton T. et al. “The Forgotten Session”: Advancing research and practice concerning the psychology of rest in athletes. J Appl Sport Psychol. 2020;
- 100 Tedeschi RG, Shakespeare-Finch J, Taku K. et al. Posttraumatic growth: Theory, research, and applications. Abingdon: Routledge; 2018
- 101 Howells K, Sarkar M, Fletcher D. Can athletes benefit from difficulty? A systematic review of growth following adversity in competitive sport. Prog Brain Res 2017; 16: 37-48
- 102 Wadey R, Day M, Howells K. Growth following adversity in sport: A mechanism to positive change in sport. Abingdon: Routledge; 2020
- 103 Anderson L, Naughton RJ, Close GL. et al. Daily distribution of macronutrient intakes of professional soccer players from the English Premier League. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2017; 28: 1-18
- 104 Anderson L, Orme P, Naughton RJ. et al. Energy intake and expenditure of professional soccer players of the English Premier League: Evidence of carbohydrate periodization. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2017; 27: 228-238
- 105 Anderson L, Close GL, Konopinksi M. et al. Case study: Muscle atrophy, hypertrophy and energy expenditure of a Premier League soccer player during rehabilitation from ACL injury. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2019; 29: 559-566
- 106 Morehen JC, Bradley WJ, Clarke J. et al. The assessment of total energy expenditure during a 14-day in-season period of professional rugby league players using the doubly labelled water method. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2016; 26: 464-472
- 107 Smith D, RFGJ King, Duckworth LC. et al. Energy expenditure of rugby players during a 14-day in-season period, measured using doubly labelled water. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118: 647-656
- 108 Costello N, Deighton K, Preston T. et al. Are professional young rugby league players eating enough? Energy intake, expenditure and balance during pre-season. Eur J Sport Sci 2019; 19: 123-132
- 109 Costello N, Deighton K, Preston T. et al. Collisions activity during training increase total energy expenditure measured via doubly labelled water. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118: 1169-1177
- 110 Olsen RH, Krogh-Madsen R, Thomsen C. et al. Metabolic responses to reduced daily steps in healthy nonexercising men. JAMA 2008; 299: 1261-1263
- 111 Knudsen SH, Hansen LS, Pedersen M. et al. Changes in insulin sensitivity precede changes in body composition during 14 days of step reduction combined with overfeeding in healthy young men. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2012; 113: 7-15
- 112 English KL, Mettler JA, Ellison JB. et al. Leucine partially protects muscle mass and function during bed rest in middle-aged adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2016; 103: 465-473
- 113 Kortebein P, Symons TB, Ferrando A. et al. Functional impact of 10 days of bed rest in healthy older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2008; 63: 1076-1081
- 114 Biolo G, Ciocchi B, Stulle M. et al. Calorie restriction accelerates the catabolism of lean body mass during 2 wk of bed rest. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 86: 366-372
- 115 Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Urban RJ. et al. Essential amino acid and carbohydrate supplementation ameliorates muscle protein loss in humans during 28 days bedrest. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 4351-4358
- 116 Churchward-Venne TA, Burd NA. et al. Supplementation of a suboptimal dose with leucine or essential amino acids: Effects on myofibrillar protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in men. J Physiol 2012; 590: 2751-2765
- 117 Morton RW, Murphy KT, McKellar SR. et al. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. Br J Sports Med 2018; 52: 376-384
- 118 Impey SG, Hearris MA, Hammond KM. et al. Fuel the work required: A theoretical framework for carbohydrate periodization and the glycogen threshold hypothesis. Sports Med 2018; 48: 1031-1048
- 119 Nieman DC, Hazels Mitmesser S. Potential impact of nutrition on immune system recovery from heavy exertion: A metabolomics perspective. Nutrients 2017; 9: 513-536
- 120 Walsh NP. Nutrition and athlete immune health: New perspectives on an old paradigm. Sports Med 2019; 49: S153-S168
- 121 Williams NC, Killer SC, Svendsen IS. et al. Immune nutrition and exercise: Narrative review and practical recommendations. Eur J Sport Sci 2018; 19: 49-61
- 122 Hespel P, Op’t Eijnde B, Van Leemputte M. et al. Oral creatine supplementation facilitates the rehabilitation of disuse atrophy and alters the expression of muscle myogenic factors in humans. J Physiol 2001; 536: 625-633
- 123 Johnston AP, Burke DG, MacNeil LG. et al. Effect of creatine supplementation during cast-induced immobilization on the preservation of muscle mass, strength, and endurance. J Strength Cond Res 2009; 23: 116-120
- 124 Nova E, Varela P, Lopez-Vidriero I. et al. A one-year follow-up study in anorexia nervosa: Dietary pattern and anthropometrical evolution. Eur J Clin Nutr 2001; 55: 574-554
- 125 Woodward B. Protein, calories, and immune function. Nutr Rev 1998; 56: S84-S92
- 126 Hume R, Weyers E. Changes in leucocyte ascorpic acid during the common cold. Scott Med J 1973; 18: 3-7
- 127 He CS, Handzlik M, Fraser WD. et al. Influence of vitamin D status on respiratory infection incidence and immune function during 4 months of winter training in endurance sport athletes. Exerc Immunol Rev 2013; 19: 86-101
- 128 Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Hooper RL. et al. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: Systematic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. Br Med J 2017; 356: i6583
- 129 Cobley C, Cox AJ, Pyne DB. et al. Upper respiratory symptoms, gut health and mucosal immunity in athletes. Sports Med 2018; 48: 65-77
- 130 Pyne DB, West NP, Cox AJ. et al. Probiotics supplementation for athletes: Clinical and physiological effects. Eur J Sport Sci 2015; 15: 63-72
- 131 Ayres JS, Sneider DS. Tolerance of infections. Annu Rev Immunol 2012; 30: 271-294
- 132 Hendricks S, Till K, den Hollander S. et al. Consensus on a video analysis framework of descriptors and definitions by the Rugby Union Video Analysis Consensus group. Br J Sports Med 2020; 54: 566-572
- 133 Sclafani MP, Davis CC. Return to play progression for rugby following injury to the lower extremity: A clinical commentary and review of the literature. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2016; 11: 302-332
- 134 Jiménez-Reyes P, Cross M, Ross A. et al. Changes in mechanical properties of sprinting during repeated sprint in elite rugby sevens athletes. Eur J Sport Sci 2019; 19: 585-594
- 135 Buckthorpe M, Wright S, Bruce-Low S. et al. Recommendations for hamstring injury prevention in elite football: Translating research into practice. Br J Sports Med 2019; 53: 449-456
- 136 Haugen T, Danielsen J, McGhie D. et al. Kinematic asymmetry in the stride cycle is not associated with performance and injuries in athletic sprinters. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2018; 28: 1001-1008
- 137 Haugen T, Tønnessen E, Hisdal J. et al. The role and development of sprinting speed in soccer. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2014; 9: 432-441
- 138 Weaving D, Marshall P, Earle K. et al. Quantifying the external and internal loads of professional rugby league training modes: Consideration for concurrent field-based training prescription. J Strength Cond Res 2017;
- 139 Petrakos G, Morin JB, Egan B. Resisted sled sprint training to improve sprint performance: A systematic review. Sports Med 2016; 46: 381-400
-
140
Francis C.
Structure of training for speed (ebook). https://www.amazon.com/
Structure-Training-Charlie-Francis-Concepts-ebook/dp/B00BG9F8UG
- 141 Green BS, Blake C, Caulfield BM. A comparison of cutting technique performance in rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25: 2668-2680
- 142 Spiteri T, Hart NH, Nimphius S. Offensive and defensive agility: A sex comparison of lower body kinematics and ground reaction forces. J Appl Biomech 2014; 30: 514-520
- 143 Hendricks S, Till K, Brown J. et al. Rugby Union needs a contact skill-training programme. Br J Sports Med 2017; 51: 829-830
- 144 Burger N, Lambert MI, Viljoen W. et al. Tackle technique and tackle-related injuries in high-level South African Rugby Union under-18 players: Real-match video analysis. Br J Sports Med 2016; 50: 932-938
- 145 Burger N, Lambert MI, Viljoen W. et al. Mechanisms and factors associated with tackle-related injuries in South African youth rugby union players. Am J Sports Med 2017; 45: 278-285
- 146 Tierney GJ, Denvir K, Farrell G. et al. Does player time-in-game affect tackle technique in elite level rugby union?. J Sci Med Sport 2018; 21: 221-225
- 147 Davidow D, Redman M, Lambert M. et al. The effect of physical fatigue on tackling technique in rugby union. J Sci Med Sport 2020;
- 148 Hendricks S, Till K, Oliver J. et al. A technical skill training framework and skill load measurement for the rugby union tackle. Strength Cond J 2018; 40: 44-49
- 149 Hendricks S, Till K, Oliver J. et al. Rating of perceived challenge as a measure of internal load for technical skill performance. Br J Sports Med 2019; 53: 611-613
- 150 Issurin V. Block Periodization: Breakthrough in Sports Training. Muskegon, MI: Ultimate Athlete Concepts;. 2008
- 151 Kanehisa H, Miyashita M. Specificity of velocity in strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1983; 52: 104-106
- 152 Behm DG, Sale DG. Velocity specificity of resistance training. Sports Med 1993; 15: 374-388
- 153 Zamparo P, Minetti A, Di Prampero P. Interplay among the changes of muscle strength, cross-sectional area and maximal explosive power: Theory and facts. Eur J Appl Physiol 2002; 88: 193-202
- 154 Snijders T, Aussieker T, Holwerda A. et al. The concept of skeletal muscle memory: Evidence from animal and human studies. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2020;
- 155 Staron RS, Leonardi MJ, Karapondo DL. et al. Strength and skeletal muscle adaptations in heavy-resistance-trained women after detraining and retraining. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1991; 70: 631-640
- 156 The Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team. The epidemiological characteristics of an outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) in China. Chin J Epidemiol. 2020;
- 157 Shi S, Qin M, Shen B. et al. Association of cardiac injury with mortality in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. JAMA Cardiol. 2020;
- 158 Liu P, Blet A, Smyth D. et al. The science underlying COVID-19: Implications for the cardiovascular system. Circulation 2020;
- 159 Eichner ER. Infection, immunity, and exercise. Phys Sportsmed 1993; 21: 125-135
- 160 Kim IC, Kim JY, Kim HA. et al. COVID-19-related myocarditis in a 21-year-old female patient. Eur Heart J 2020; 41: 1859
- 161 Kenney K, Landau ME, Gonzalez RS. et al. Serum creatine kinase after exercise: drawing the line between physiological response and exertional rhabdomyolysis. Muscle Nerve 2012; 45: 356-362
- 162 Meeusen R, Duclos M, Foster C. et al. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the overtraining syndrome: joint consensus statement of the European College of Sport Science and the American College of Sports Medicine. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013; 45: 186-205
- 163 Quarrie KL, Raftery M, Blackie J. et al. Managing player load in professional rugby union: a review of current knowledge and practices. Br J Sports Med 2017; 51: 421-427
- 164 Foster C, Florhaug J. Franklin et al. A new approach to monitoring exercise training. J Strength Cond Res 2001; 15: 109-115
- 165 Franchini M, Ferraresi M, Pretruolo A. et al. Is a retrospective RPE appropriate in soccer? Response shift and recall bias. Sci Med Football 2017; 1: 53-59
- 166 Scantlebury S, Till K, Sawczuk T. et al. Validity of retrospective session rating of perceived exertion to quantify training load in youth athletes. J Strength Cond Res 2018; 32: 1975-1980
- 167 Phibbs PJ, Roe G, Jones B. et al. Validity of daily and weekly self-reported training load measures in adolescent athletes. J Strength Cond Res 2017; 31: 1121-1126
- 168 Harriss DJ, Macsween A, Atkinson G. Ethical standards in sport and exercise science research: 2020 update. Int J Sports Med 2019; 40: 813-817