Download PDF
CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 · Int J Sports Med 2022; 43(03): 230-236
DOI: 10.1055/a-1554-5093
Physiology & Biochemistry

Oxygen-enriched Air Decreases Ventilation during High-intensity Fin-swimming Underwater

Fabian Möller 
1   Department of Exercise Physiology, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
,
Elena Jacobi
1   Department of Exercise Physiology, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
,
Uwe Hoffmann
1   Department of Exercise Physiology, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
,
Thomas Muth
2   Occupational, Social, Environmental Medicine, Heinrich-Heine-Universitat Dusseldorf, Dusseldorf, Germany
,
Jochen D. Schipke
3   Research Group Experimenal Surgery, University Hospital Düsseldorf, Dusseldorf, Germany
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
Also available at
   Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Oxygen-enriched air is commonly used in the sport of SCUBA-diving and might affect ventilation and heart rate, but little work exists for applied diving settings. We hypothesized that ventilation is decreased especially during strenuous underwater fin-swimming when using oxygen-enriched air as breathing gas. Ten physically-fit divers (age: 25±4; 5 females; 67±113 open-water dives) performed incremental underwater fin-swimming until exhaustion at 4 m water depth with either normal air or oxygen-enriched air (40% O2) in a double-blind, randomized within-subject design. Heart rate and ventilation were measured throughout the dive and maximum whole blood lactate samples were determined post-exercise. ANOVAs showed a significant effect for the factor breathing gas (F(1, 9)=7.52; P=0.023; η2 p=0.455), with a lower ventilation for oxygen-enriched air during fin-swimming velocities of 0.6 m·s−1 (P=0.032) and 0.8 m·s−1 (P=0.037). Heart rate, lactate, and time to exhaustion showed no significant differences. These findings indicate decreased ventilation by an elevated oxygen fraction in the breathing gas when fin-swimming in shallow-water submersion with high velocity (>0.5 m·s−1). Applications are within involuntary underwater exercise or rescue scenarios for all dives with limited gas supply.

Key words

SCUBA diving - nitrox - underwater exercise - hyperoxia


Publication History

Received: 16 December 2020

Accepted: 30 June 2021

Article published online:
16 August 2021

© 2021. The Author(s). This is an open access article published by Thieme under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonDerivative-NonCommercial-License, permitting copying and reproduction so long as the original work is given appropriate credit. Contents may not be used for commercial purposes, or adapted, remixed, transformed or built upon. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Georg Thieme Verlag KG
Rüdigerstraße 14, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany

 

  • References

  • 1 Forster HV, Haouzi P, Dempsey JA. Control of breathing during exercise. Compr Physiol 2012; 2: 743-777
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 2 Andersson JPA, Linér MH, Fredsted A. et al Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to apneas with and without face immersion in exercising humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2002; 96: 1005-1010
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 3 Ulrich S, Hasler ED, Müller-Mottet S. et al Mechanisms of improved exercise performance under hyperoxia. Respiration 2017; 93: 90-98
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 4 Dejours P. Chemoreflexes in breathing. Physiol Rev 1962; 42: 335-358
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 5 Peacher DF, Pecorella SRH, Freiberger JJ. et al Effects of hyperoxia on ventilation and pulmonary hemodynamics during immersed prone exercise at 4.7 ATA: Possible implications for immersion pulmonary edema. J Appl Physiol 1985; 2010: 68-78
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 6 Fraser JAV, Peacher DF, Freiberger JJ. et al Risk factors for immersion pulmonary edema: Hyperoxia does not attenuate pulmonary hypertension associated with cold water-immersed prone exercise at 4.7 ATA. J Appl Physiol 1985; 2011: 610-618
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 7 Zenske A, Kähler W, Koch A. et al Does oxygen-enriched air better than normal air improve sympathovagal balance in recreational divers? An open-water study. Res Sports Med 2020, 28, 397–412
    PubMed
  • 8 Brebeck AK, Deussen A, Range U. et al Beneficial effect of enriched air nitrox on bubble formation during scuba diving. An open-water study. J Sports Sci 2018; 36: 605-612
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 9 Mitchell SJ, Doolette DJ. Recreational technical diving part 1: An introduction to technical diving methods and activities. Diving Hyperb Med 2013; 43: 86-93
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 10 Fock A, Harris R, Slade M. Oxygen exposure and toxicity in recreational technical divers. Diving Hyperb Med 2013; 43: 67-71
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 11 Germonpré P, Balestra C, Hemelryck W. et al Objective vs. subjective evaluation of cognitive performance during 0.4-MPa dives breathing air or nitrox. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 2017; 88: 469-475
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 12 Balestra C, Lafère P, Germonpré P. Persistence of critical flicker fusion frequency impairment after a 33 mfw SCUBA dive: Evidence of prolonged nitrogen narcosis?. Eur J Appl Physiol 2012; 4063-4068
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 13 Steinberg F, Doppelmayr M. Executive functions of divers are selectively impaired at 20-meter water depth. Front Psychol 2017; 8: 1000
    PubMed
  • 14 Rocco M, Pelaia P, Di Benedetto P. et al Inert gas narcosis in scuba diving, different gases different reactions. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 119: 247-255
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 15 Fagraeus L, Karlsson J, Linnarsson D. et al Oxygen uptake during maximal work at lowered and raised ambient air pressures. Acta Physiol Scand 1973; 87: 411-421
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 16 Linnarsson D, Karlsson J, Fagraeus L. et al Muscle metabolites and oxygen deficit with exercise in hypoxia and hyperoxia. J Appl Physiol 1974; 36: 399-402
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 17 Noakes TD, Peltonen JE, Rusko HK. Evidence that a central governor regulates exercise performance during acute hypoxia and hyperoxia. J Exp Biol 2001; 204: 3225-3234
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 18 Welch HG, Mullin JP, Wilson GD. et al Effects of breathing O2-enriched gas mixtures on metabolic rate during exercise. Med Sci Sports 1974; 6: 26-32
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 19 Wilson BA, Welch HG, Liles JN. Effects of hyperoxic gas mixtures on energy metabolism during prolonged work. J Appl Physiol 1975; 39: 267-271
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 20 Stellingwerff T, Leblanc PJ, Hollidge MG. et al Hyperoxia decreases muscle glycogenolysis, lactate production, and lactate efflux during steady-state exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006; 290: E1180-E1190
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 21 Hughson, Kowalchuk JM Kinetics of oxygen uptake for submaximal exercise in hyperoxia, normoxia, and hypoxia. Can J Appl Physiol 1995; 20: 198–210
    PubMed
  • 22 Schaeffer MR, Ryerson CJ, Ramsook AH. et al Effects of hyperoxia on dyspnoea and exercise endurance in fibrotic interstitial lung disease. Eur Respir J 2017; 49: 1602494
    PubMed
  • 23 Amann M, Eldridge MW, Lovering AT. et al Arterial oxygenation influences central motor output and exercise performance via effects on peripheral locomotor muscle fatigue in humans. J Physiol 2006; 575: 937-952
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 24 Allen PD, Pandolf KB. Perceived exertion associated with breathing hyperoxic mixtures during submaximal work. Med Sci Sports 1977; 9: 122-127
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 25 Peeling P, Andersson R. Effect of hyperoxia during the rest periods of interval training on perceptual recovery and oxygen re-saturation time. J Sports Sci 2011; 29: 147-150
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 26 Plet J, Pedersen PK, Jensen FB. et al Increased working capacity with hyperoxia in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 65: 171-177
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 27 Bak Z, Sjöberg F, Rousseau A. et al Human cardiovascular dose-response to supplemental oxygen. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2007; 191: 15-24
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 28 Gole Y, Gargne O, Coulange M. et al Hyperoxia-induced alterations in cardiovascular function and autonomic control during return to normoxic breathing. Eur J Appl Physiol 2011; 111: 937-946
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 29 Harriss DJ, MacSween A, Atkinson G. Ethical standards in sport and exercise science research: 2020 update. Int J Sports Med 2019; 40: 813-817
    Thieme ConnectPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 30 Steinberg F, Dräger T, Steegmanns A. et al fit2dive-A field test for assessing the specific capability of underwater fin swimming with SCUBA. Int J Perform Anal Sport 2011; 11: 197-208
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 31 Borg GAV. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1982; 14: 377-381
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 32 Bischoff MM, Duffin J. An aid to the determination of the ventilatory threshold. Eur J Appl Physiol 1995; 71: 65-70
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 33 Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Hillsday MI: Lawrence Erlbaum Association 1988
    PubMed
  • 34 Bosco G, Rizzato A, Moon RE. et al Environmental physiology and diving medicine. Front Psychol 2018; 9: 72
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 35 Zander R. Oxygen solubility in normal human blood. In: Kovách AGB, Dóra E, Kessler M et al., Eds. Advances in Physiological Sciences: Oxygen Transport to Tissue. 1st Edition. New York: Pergamon Pres; 1981: 331–332
    PubMed
  • 36 Sperlich B, Schiffer T, Hoffmann U. et al The spirografic oxygen deficit: its role in cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Int J Sports Med 2013; 34: 1074-1078
    Thieme ConnectPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 37 Mallette MM, Stewart DG, Cheung SS. The effects of hyperoxia on sea-level exercise performance, training, and recovery: A meta-analysis. Sports Med 2018; 48: 153-175
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 38 Prieur F, Benoit H, Busso T. et al Effects of moderate hyperoxia on oxygen consumption during submaximal and maximal exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2002; 88: 235-242
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 39 Macdonald M, Pedersen PK, Hughson RL. Acceleration of VO2 kinetics in heavy submaximal exercise by hyperoxia and prior high-intensity exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1997; 83: 1318-1325
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 40 Kane DA. Lactate oxidation at the mitochondria: A lactate-malate-aspartate shuttle at work. Front Neurosci 2014; 8: 366
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 41 Byrnes WC, Mihevic PM, Freedson PS. et al Submaximal exercise quantified as percent of normoxic and hyperoxic maximum oxygen uptakes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1984; 16: 572-577
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 42 Hogan MC, Cox RH, Welch HG. Lactate accumulation during incremental exercise with varied inspired oxygen fractions. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol 1983; 55: 1134-1140
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 43 Cardinale DA, Ekblom B. Hyperoxia for performance and training. J Sports Sci 2018; 36: 1515-1522
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 44 Pedersen PK, Kiens B, Saltin B. Hyperoxia does not increase peak muscle oxygen uptake in small muscle group exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 1999; 166: 309-318
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 45 Linossier MT, Dormois D, Arsac L. et al Effect of hyperoxia on aerobic and anaerobic performances and muscle metabolism during maximal cycling exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 2000; 168: 403-411
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar