Prevalence and Risk Factors for Depression among Parents of Children Born Preterm: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of The Evidence Since 2000

Abstract

Objective

Previous reviews of depression among parents of preterm children were restricted to mothers within the first year of preterm delivery. We aimed to systematically review the prevalence and risk factors for depressive symptoms among mothers and fathers in the first 5 years following preterm birth.

Study Design

This systematic review was undertaken following the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Guidelines and reported using the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis guidelines. Peer-reviewed, all-language, observational studies from the year 2000 that assessed the prevalence and/or risk factors for depression among parents of children born preterm (<37 weeks gestation) in the first 5 years following preterm birth, using validated clinical scales, were included. Medline, Embase, Web of Science Core Collection, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Central were searched on July 29, 2021. The NIH quality assessment tool was used. Meta-analysis was performed using inverse variance effects models to estimate prevalence and identify risk factors.

Results

Seventy-eight studies were included. The majority were English language (n = 71), European (n = 32), and cross-sectional studies (n = 44), using the EPDS scale (n = 45). The prevalence of depressive symptoms among mothers was 25% (95% confidence interval (CI): 21–31%; n = 72) in the first year, and 20% (13–30%; n = 8) in the second to fifth year, while for fathers, the rates were 13% (8–22%; n = 15) and 11% (2–50%; n = 1), respectively. Eastern Mediterranean region had the highest prevalence of maternal depressive symptoms in the first year (48% [25–72%; n = 3]), while it was the Western Pacific region for fathers (17% [15–19%]). Low educational status (odds ratio: 3.5; [95% CI: 1.9–6.5; n = 2]) was associated with depressive symptoms among mothers in the first year.

Conclusion

Mothers and fathers had a high prevalence of depressive symptoms in the first 5 years following preterm birth, with region variations in the prevalence (PROSPERO registration no.: CRD42021260748).

Key Points

• What is known: mothers are at increased risk of depression in the first year.

• What this study adds: Parents are at increased risk in the first 5 years.

• How this study might affect policy: equitable allocation of resources in the health system.

• How this study might affect practice: increase screening among parents of premature infants.

• How this study might affect research: inform the need to collect risk-specific data.

Keywords

prematurity - depression - mothers - fathers

Publication History

Received: 15 December 2024

Accepted: 27 March 2025

Accepted Manuscript online:
28 March 2025

Article published online:
30 April 2025

• References

• 1 Depression. World Health Organization; ; Accessed 2021 at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/depression
• 2 Perinatal Health Indicators for Canada 2017. Public Health Agency of Canada; 2017. . Accessed Feb 13, 2021 at: https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/aspc-phac/HP7-1-2017-eng.pdf
• 3 Synnes A, Luu TM, Moddemann D. et al; Canadian Neonatal Network and the Canadian Neonatal Follow-Up Network. Determinants of developmental outcomes in a very preterm Canadian cohort. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2017; 102 (03) F235-F234
• 4 Murray L, Sinclair D, Cooper P, Ducournau P, Turner P, Stein A. The socioemotional development of 5-year-old children of postnatally depressed mothers. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1999; 40 (08) 1259-1271
• 5 Lund C, De Silva M, Plagerson S. et al. Poverty and mental disorders: breaking the cycle in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet 2011; 378 (9801) 1502-1514
• 6 Vigod SN, Villegas L, Dennis CL, Ross LE. Prevalence and risk factors for postpartum depression among women with preterm and low-birth-weight infants: a systematic review. BJOG 2010; 117 (05) 540-550
• 7 de Paula Eduardo JAF, de Rezende MG, Menezes PR, Del-Ben CM. Preterm birth as a risk factor for postpartum depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord 2019; 259: 392-403
• 8 Louis D, Akil H, Bolton JM. et al. Mental disorders among mothers of children born preterm: a population-based cohort study in Canada. Can J Psychiatry 2023; 68 (05) 338-346
• 9 Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Accessed March 1, 2021 at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epub/10.1002/9781119536604
• 10 PRISMA 2009 checklist.pdf. Accessed March 1, 2021 at: http://prisma-statement.org/documents/PRISMA%202009%20checklist.pdf
• 11 Stroup DF, Morton SC, Olkin I. et al. Meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology: a proposal for reporting. Meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology (MOOSE) group. JAMA 2000; 283 (15) 2008-2012
• 12 Antenatal Corticosteroids to Reduce Neonatal Morbidity.pdf. Accessed March 26, 2021 at: https://www.glowm.com/pdf/Antenatal%20Corticosteroids%20to%20Reduce%20Neonatal%20Morbidity.pdf
• 13 The National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Development Program. The Effect of Corticosteroids for Fetal Maturation on Perinatal Outcomes. Accessed March 26, 2021 at: https://consensus.nih.gov/1994/1994antenatalsteroidperinatal095html.htm
• 14 McGoldrick E, Stewart F, Parker R, Dalziel SR. Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020; 12 (12) CD004454
• 15 Moore T, Hennessy EM, Myles J. et al. Neurological and developmental outcome in extremely preterm children born in England in 1995 and 2006: the EPICure studies. BMJ 2012; 345 (dec04 3): e7961-e7961
• 16 Cheong JLY, Anderson PJ, Burnett AC. et al; Victorian Infant Collaborative Study Group. Changing neurodevelopment at 8 years in children born extremely preterm since the 1990s. Pediatrics 2017; 139 (06) e20164086
• 17 Cheong JLY, Spittle AJ, Burnett AC, Anderson PJ, Doyle LW. Have outcomes following extremely preterm birth improved over time?. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2020; 25 (03) 101114
• 18 Administration SA, Table MHS. 9, DSM-IV to DSM-5 Major Depressive Episode/Disorder Comparison. June 2016. . Accessed March 26, 2021 at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519712/table/ch3.t5/
• 19 Bell CC. DSM-IV: diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. JAMA J Am Med Assoc. 1994; 272 (10) 828
• 20 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed.. , text revised. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000
• 21 American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association. : Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed.. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2013
• 22 McGowan J, Sampson M, Salzwedel DM, Cogo E, Foerster V, Lefebvre C. PRESS peer review of electronic search strategies: 2015 guideline statement. J Clin Epidemiol 2016; 75: 40-46
• 23 Cochrane Engage. Chochrane Task Exchange Portal. Accessed February 15, 2022 at: http://taskexchange.cochrane.org/
• 24 Study Quality Assessment Tools | NHLBI, NIH. Accessed March 1, 2021 at: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools
• 25 Harrer M, Cuijpers P, Furukawa T, Ebert D. Doing Meta-Analysis with R: A Hands-On Guide. Chapman & Hall/CRC Press; . Accessed 2021 at: https://bookdown.org/MathiasHarrer/Doing_Meta_Analysis_in_R/#welcome
• 26 Harrer M, Cuijpers P, Furukawa T, Elbert D. Companion R Package For The Guide “Doing Meta-Analysis im R.”. Accessed 2019 at: http://dmetar.protectlab.org/
• 27 Balduzzi S, Rucker G, Schwarzer G. How to perform a meta-analysis with R: a practical tutorial. BMJ Ment Health 2019; 22 (04) :null
• 28 Higgins JPT, Thompson SG. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med 2002; 21 (11) 1539-1558
• 29 WHO Health Regions. World Health Organization; Accessed January 8, 2023 at: https://www.who.int/about/who-we-are/regional-offices
• 30 Gateau K, Song A, Vanderbilt DL. et al. Maternal post-traumatic stress and depression symptoms and outcomes after NICU discharge in a low-income sample: a cross-sectional study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2021; 21 (01) 48
• 31 González-Hernández A, González-Hernandez D, Fortuny-Falconi CM. et al. Prevalence and associated factors to depression and anxiety in women with premature babies hospitalized in a neonatal intensive-care unit in a Mexican population. J Pediatr Nurs 2019; 45: e53-e56
• 32 Sakari PS, Mwanzia L, Chesire I. Postpartum depression and anxiety among mothers of preterm neonates in western Kenya. Afr J Midwifery Womens Health 2021; 15 (02) 1-15
• 33 The Global Health Observatory Countries. World Health Organization; . Accessed August 10, 2022 at: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/countries
• 34 Adewuya AO, Fatoye FO, Ola BA, Ijaodola OR, Ibigbami SMO. Sociodemographic and obstetric risk factors for postpartum depressive symptoms in Nigerian women. J Psychiatr Pract 2005; 11 (05) 353-358
• 35 Alkozei A, McMahon E, Lahav A. Stress levels and depressive symptoms in NICU mothers in the early postpartum period. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2014; 27 (17) 1738-1743
• 36 Anjum F, Batool Z. An analytical study of contributory factors of postpartum depression among women in Punjab, Pakistan. Rawal Med J 2019; 44 (01) 130-133
• 37 Bansal SC, Ganjiwale JD, Nimbalkar SM, Kharod NM. Screening for postpartum depression in a neonatal intensive care unit and postnatal ward with its impact on newborn care practices: a hospital based survey. J Clin Diagn Res 2018
• 38 Barber KS, Brunner Huber LR, Portwood SG, Boyd AS, Smith J, Walker LS. The association between having a preterm birth and later maternal mental health: an analysis of U.S. pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system data. Womens Health Issues 2021; 31 (01) 49-56
• 39 Bergström EB, Wallin L, Thomson G, Flacking R. Postpartum depression in mothers of infants cared for in a neonatal intensive care unit – incidence and associated factors. J Neonatal Nurs 2012; 18 (04) 143-151
• 40 Blanc J, Rességuier N, Lorthe E. et al. Association between extremely preterm caesarean delivery and maternal depressive and anxious symptoms: a national population-based cohort study. BJOG 2021; 128 (03) 594-602
• 41 Bozzette M, Holditch-Davis D. A preliminary study of depressive symptoms in mothers of 3-year-old prematurely born children. Child Health Care 2015; 44 (01) 54-68
• 42 Braarud HC, Slinning K, Moe V. et al. Relation between social withdrawal symptoms in full-term and premature infants and depressive symtoms in mothers: a longitudinal study: social withdrawal in full-term and premature infants. Infant Ment Health J 2013; 34 (06) 532-541
• 43 Candelori C, Trumello C, Babore A, Keren M, Romanelli R. The experience of premature birth for fathers: the application of the clinical interview for parents of high-risk infants (CLIP) to an Italian sample. Front Psychol 2015; 6: 1444
• 44 Carvalho AEV, Martinez FE, Linhares MBM. Maternal anxiety and depression and development of prematurely born infants in the first year of life. Span J Psychol 2008; 11 (02) 600-608
• 45 Çetin NS. The relationship between the prevalence of postpartum depression and anxiety, and depression levels in the mothers of premature, and term newborns admitted to a pediatric emergency department. J Surg Med. 2021; 5 (04) 380-384
• 46 Chang HP, Chen JY, Huang YH. et al. Prevalence and factors associated with depressive symptoms in mothers with infants or toddlers. Pediatr Neonatol 2014; 55 (06) 470-479
• 47 Cheng ER, Kotelchuck M, Gerstein ED, Taveras EM, Poehlmann-Tynan J. Postnatal depressive symptoms among mothers and fathers of infants born preterm: prevalence and impacts on children's early cognitive function. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2016; 37 (01) 33-42
• 48 Cruise SM, Layte R, Stevenson M, O'Reilly D. Prevalence and factors associated with depression and depression-related healthcare access in mothers of 9-month-old infants in the Republic of Ireland. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci 2018; 27 (05) 468-478
• 49 Dantas MMC, de Araújo PCB, Santos Lde O, Pires NA, Maia EMC. Symptoms of anxiety and depression in mothers of hospitalized premature infants. Rev Enferm UFPE Line. 2012; 6 (02) 279
• 50 Davis L, Edwards H, Mohay H, Wollin J. The impact of very premature birth on the psychological health of mothers. Early Hum Dev 2003; 73 (1-2): 61-70
• 51 Drewett R, Blair P, Emmett P, Emond A. ALSPAC Study Team. Failure to thrive in the term and preterm infants of mothers depressed in the postnatal period: a population-based birth cohort study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2004; 45 (02) 359-366
• 52 Ellouze S, Aloulou J, Halouani N. et al. L'accouchement prématuré : un facteur de risque de dépression maternelle?. Soins Pediatr Pueric 2020; 41 (312) 32-36
• 53 Enatescu VR, Bernad E, Gluhovschi A. et al. Perinatal characteristics and mother's personality profile associated with increased likelihood of postpartum depression occurrence in a Romanian outpatient sample. J Ment Health 2017; 26 (03) 212-219
• 54 Eutrope J, Thierry A, Lempp F. et al. Emotional reactions of mothers facing premature births: study of 100 mother-infant dyads 32 gestational weeks. PLoS One 2014; 9 (08) e104093
• 55 Garfield L, Holditch-Davis D, Carter CS. et al. Risk factors for postpartum depressive symptoms in low-income women with very low-birth-weight infants. Adv Neonatal Care 2015; 15 (01) E3-E8
• 56 Gerstein ED, Njoroge WFM, Paul RA, Smyser CD, Rogers CE. Maternal depression and stress in the NICU: associations with mother-child interactions at age 5 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2020; 58 (03) 350-358
• 57 Goutaudier N, Séjourné N, Chabrol H. Rôle des relations interpersonnelles et des variables individuelles dans la survenue de symptômes de dépression postnatale post-accouchement prématuré. J Pediatr Pueric 2014; 27 (02) 53-61
• 58 Gray PH, Edwards DM, O'Callaghan MJ, Cuskelly M. Parenting stress in mothers of preterm infants during early infancy. Early Hum Dev 2012; 88 (01) 45-49
• 59 Gulamani SS, Premji SS, Kanji Z, Azam SI. Preterm birth a risk factor for postpartum depression in Pakistani women. Open J Depress 2013; 02 (04) 72-81
• 60 Gülnar DD, Sunay DD, Çaylan DA, Amaç Ö. Risk Factors Related with Postpartum Depression. Turkiye Klinikleri J Gynecol Obst 2010; 20 (03) 141-148
• 61 Gungor I, Oskay U, Beji NK. Biopsychosocial risk factors for preterm birth and postpartum emotional well-being: a case-control study on Turkish women without chronic illnesses. J Clin Nurs 2011; 20 (5-6): 653-665
• 62 Hawes K, McGowan E, O'Donnell M, Tucker R, Vohr B. Social emotional factors increase risk of postpartum depression in mothers of preterm infants. J Pediatr 2016; 179: 61-67
• 63 Helle N, Barkmann C, Bartz-Seel J. et al. Very low birth-weight as a risk factor for postpartum depression four to six weeks postbirth in mothers and fathers: cross-sectional results from a controlled multicentre cohort study. J Affect Disord 2015; 180: 154-161
• 64 Henderson J, Carson C, Redshaw M. Impact of preterm birth on maternal well-being and women's perceptions of their baby: a population-based survey. BMJ Open 2016; 6 (10) e012676
• 65 Herguner S, Annagur A, Cicek E, Altunhan H, Ors R. 1290 postpartum depression in mothers of infants with very low birth weight. Arch Dis Child 2012; 97 (Suppl. 02) A368-A368
• 66 Howland LC, Pickler RH, McCain NL, Glaser D, Lewis M. Exploring Biobehavioral Outcomes in Mothers of Preterm Infants. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 2011; 36 (02) 91-97
• 67 Jarvinen N, Hannakaisa NV, Axelin A. Parents' experience of stress and depression in the neonatal intensive care unit. Hoitotiede 2013; 25 (03) 183-193
• 68 Kersting A, Dorsch M, Wesselmann U. et al. Maternal posttraumatic stress response after the birth of a very low-birth-weight infant. J Psychosom Res 2004; 57 (05) 473-476
• 69 Korja R, Savonlahti E, Ahlqvist-Björkroth S. et al; PIPARI study group. Maternal depression is associated with mother-infant interaction in preterm infants. Acta Paediatr 2008; 97 (06) 724-730
• 70 Koutra K, Vassilaki M, Georgiou V. et al. Pregnancy, perinatal and postpartum complications as determinants of postpartum depression: the Rhea mother-child cohort in Crete, Greece. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci 2018; 27 (03) 244-255
• 71 Leahy-Warren P, Coleman C, Bradley R, Mulcahy H. The experiences of mothers with preterm infants within the first-year post discharge from NICU: social support, attachment and level of depressive symptoms. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2020; 20 (01) 260
• 72 Liu S, Yan Y, Gao X. et al. Risk factors for postpartum depression among Chinese women: path model analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2017; 17 (01) 133
• 73 Lotterman JH, Lorenz JM, Bonanno GA. You can't take your baby home yet: a longitudinal study of psychological symptoms in mothers of infants hospitalized in the NICU. J Clin Psychol Med Settings 2019; 26 (01) 116-122
• 74 Mackley AB, Locke RG, Spear ML, Joseph R. Forgotten parent: NICU paternal emotional response. Adv Neonatal Care 2010; 10 (04) 200-203
• 75 Madu SN, Roos JJ. Depression Among Mothers With Preterm Infants And Their Stress-Coping Strategies. Soc Behav Personal 2006; 34 (07) 877-890
• 76 Mbatha NL, Mokwena KE, Madiba S. Clinical and obstetric risk factors for postnatal depression in HIV positive women: a cross sectional study in health facilities in rural KwaZulu-Natal. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17 (22) 8425
• 77 McManus BM, Poehlmann J. Maternal depression and perceived social support as predictors of cognitive function trajectories during the first 3 years of life for preterm infants in Wisconsin. Child Care Health Dev 2012; 38 (03) 425-434
• 78 McMahon GE, Anderson PJ, Giallo R. et al. Mental health trajectories of fathers following very preterm birth: associations with parenting. J Pediatr Psychol 2020; 45 (07) 725-735
• 79 Mehler K, Mainusch A, Hucklenbruch-Rother E, Hahn M, Hünseler C, Kribs A. Increased rate of parental postpartum depression and traumatization in moderate and late preterm infants is independent of the infant's motor repertoire. Early Hum Dev 2014; 90 (12) 797-801
• 80 Meltzer-Brody S, Maegbaek ML, Medland SE, Miller WC, Sullivan P, Munk-Olsen T. Obstetrical, pregnancy and socio-economic predictors for new-onset severe postpartum psychiatric disorders in primiparous women. Psychol Med 2017; 47 (08) 1427-1441
• 81 Mew AM, Holditch-Davis D, Belyea M, Miles MS, Fishel A. Correlates of depressive symptoms in mothers of preterm infants. Neonatal Netw 2003; 22 (05) 51-60
• 82 Miles MS, Holditch-Davis D, Schwartz TA, Scher M. Depressive symptoms in mothers of prematurely born infants. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2007; 28 (01) 36-44
• 83 Moura MRS, Araújo CGA, Prado MM. et al. Factors associated with the quality of life of mothers of preterm infants with very low birth weight: a 3-year follow-up study. Qual Life Res 2017; 26 (05) 1349-1360
• 84 Mutua J, Kigamwa P, Ng'ang'a P, Tele A, Kumar M. Comorbid postpartum anxiety and depression and associated factors in mothers with pre-term births: a descriptive comparative study. in review. 2020;
• 85 Najafi-Sharjabad F, Davani N, Rayani S, Mohammadi S. Evaluation of sociocultural, obstetric, and child related factors associated with postpartum depression in Bushehr, Southwest of Iran. Int J Pediatr 2020;
• 86 Neri E, Giovagnoli S, Genova F, Benassi M, Stella M, Agostini F. Reciprocal influence of depressive symptoms between mothers and fathers during the first postpartum year: a comparison among full-term, very low, and extremely low birth weight infants. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11: 578264
• 87 Ouwendijk-Andréa M, Bröring-Starre T, Molderink AC, Laarman CARC, Oostrom KJ, van Dijk-Lokkart EM. Parental emotional distress after discharge from the neonatal intensive care unit: a pilot study. Early Hum Dev 2020; 140: 104892
• 88 Pace CC, Spittle AJ, Molesworth CML. et al. Evolution of depression and anxiety symptoms in parents of very preterm infants during the newborn period. JAMA Pediatr 2016; 170 (09) 863-870
• 89 Padovani FHP, Carvalho AEV, Duarte G, Martinez FE, Linhares MBM. Anxiety, dysphoria, and depression symptoms in mothers of preterm infants. Psychol Rep 2009; 104 (02) 667-679
• 90 Pavoine S, Azemar F, Rajon AM, Raynaud JP. Parents d'enfant premature: quel devenir au cours de la premiere annee?. Rev Infirm 2005; 109: 10-13
• 91 Petersen IB, Quinlivan JA. Fatherhood too soon. Anxiety, depression and quality of life in fathers of preterm and term babies: a longitudinal study. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 2021; 42 (02) 162-167
• 92 Pisoni C, Spairani S, Manzoni F. et al. Depressive symptoms and maternal psychological distress during early infancy: a pilot study in preterm as compared with term mother-infant dyads. J Affect Disord 2019; 257: 470-476
• 93 Piyasil V, Pichaiyut P. Postpartum depression in the mothers of preterm infants at Queen Sirikit National Institute of Child Health. J Med Assoc Thai 2011; 94 (Suppl. 03) S91-S94
• 94 Premji SS, Reilly S, Currie G. et al. Experiences, mental well-being and community-based care needs of fathers of late preterm infants: a mixed-methods pilot study. Nurs Open 2019; 7 (01) 127-136
• 95 Rogers CE, Kidokoro H, Wallendorf M, Inder TE. Identifying mothers of very preterm infants at-risk for postpartum depression and anxiety before discharge. J Perinatol 2013; 33 (03) 171-176
• 96 ŞahiN E, TiRyaki DA, Amaç Ö. Observing the Depression and Anxiety Levels of the Mothers with Low-Weight-Birth Preterm Infants. Turkiye Klinikleri J Gynecol Obst 2011; 21 (03) 155-63
• 97 Shelton SL, Meaney-Delman DM, Hunter M, Lee SY. Depressive symptoms and the relationship of stress, sleep, and well-being among NICU mothers. J Nurs Educ Pract 2014; 4 (08) 70
• 98 Silverman ME, Reichenberg A, Savitz DA. et al. The risk factors for postpartum depression: a population-based study. Depress Anxiety 2017; 34 (02) 178-187
• 99 Trumello C, Candelori C, Cofini M. et al. Mothers' depression, anxiety, and mental representations after preterm birth: a study during the infant's hospitalization in a neonatal intensive care unit. Front Public Health 2018; 6: 359
• 100 Ukpong DI, Fatoye FO, Oseni SB, Adewuya AO. Post partum emotional distress in mothers of preterm infants: a controlled study. East Afr Med J 2003; 80 (06) 289-292
• 101 Ukpong DI. Factors associated with psychological morbidity in mothers of pre-term infants: a study from Wesley Guild Hospital, Nigeria. J Obstet Gynaecol 2011; 31 (02) 146-148
• 102 Vasa R, Eldeirawi K, Kuriakose VG, Nair G J, Newsom C, Bates J. Postpartum depression in mothers of infants in neonatal intensive care unit: risk factors and management strategies. Am J Perinatol 2014; 31 (05) 425-434
• 103 Veddovi M, Kenny DT, Gibson F, Bowen J, Starte D. The relationship between depressive symptoms following premature birth, mothers' coping style, and knowledge of infant development. J Reprod Infant Psychol 2001; 19 (04) 313-323
• 104 Warzecha D, Gajda S, Kosinska-Kaczynska K, Szymusik I, Wielgos M. Risk factors for depressive symptoms in early postpartum period and after puerperium - are they the same?. Neuroendocrinol Lett 2016; 37 (06) 452-460
• 105 Weigl T, Schneider N, Stein A, Felderhoff-Müser U, Schedlowski M, Engler H. Postpartal affective and endocrine differences between parents of preterm and full-term infants. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11: 251
• 106 Winter L, Colditz PB, Sanders MR. et al. Depression, posttraumatic stress and relationship distress in parents of very preterm infants. Arch Womens Ment Health 2018; 21 (04) 445-451
• 107 Youn H, Lee S, Han SW. et al. Obstetric risk factors for depression during the postpartum period in South Korea: a nationwide study. J Psychosom Res 2017; 102: 15-20
• 108 Yurdakul Z, Akman I, Kuşçu MK. et al. Maternal psychological problems associated with neonatal intensive care admission. Int J Pediatr 2009; 2009: 591359