ABSTRACT
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the most promising noninvasive modality for hip joint evaluation, but it has limitations in diagnosing cartilage lesion and acetabular labrum changes, especially in early stages. This is significant due to superior outcome results of surgery intervention in hip dysplasia or femoroacetabular impingement in patients not exceeding early degeneration. This emphasizes the need for accurate and reproducible methods in evaluating cartilage structure. In this article, we discuss the impact of the most recent technological advance in MRI, namely the advantage of 3-T imaging, on diagnostic imaging of the hip. Limitations of standard imaging techniques are shown with emphasis on femoroacetabular impingement. Clinical imaging examples and biochemical techniques are presented that need to be further evaluated.
KEYWORDS
Hip - MRI - high field - FAI - cartilage - labrum
REFERENCES
-
1
Eckstein F.
Noninvasive study of human cartilage structure by MRI.
Methods Mol Med.
2004;
101
191-217
-
2
Eckstein F, Glaser C.
Measuring cartilage morphology with quantitative magnetic resonance imaging.
Semin Musculoskelet Radiol.
2004;
8(4)
329-353
-
3
Koo S, Gold G E, Andriacchi T P.
Considerations in measuring cartilage thickness using MRI: factors influencing reproducibility and accuracy.
Osteoarthritis Cartilage.
2005;
13(9)
782-789
-
4
Recht M P, Goodwin D W, Winalski C S, White L M.
MRI of articular cartilage: revisiting current status and future directions.
AJR Am J Roentgenol.
2005;
185(4)
899-914
-
5
Balkissoon A.
MR imaging of cartilage: evaluation and comparison of MR imaging techniques.
Top Magn Reson Imaging.
1996;
8(1)
57-67
-
6
Czerny C, Hofmann S, Neuhold A et al..
Lesions of the acetabular labrum: accuracy of MR imaging and MR arthrography in detection and staging.
Radiology.
1996;
200(1)
225-230
-
7
Plotz G M, Brossmann J, Schunke M et al..
Magnetic resonance arthrography of the acetabular labrum. Macroscopic and histological correlation in 20 cadavers.
J Bone Joint Surg Br.
2000;
82(3)
426-432
-
8
Locher S, Werlen S, Leunig M, Ganz R.
MR-Arthrography with radial sequences for visualization of early hip pathology not visible on plain radiographs.
Z Orthop Ihre Grenzgeb.
2002;
140(1)
52-57
-
9
Petersilge C A.
MR arthrography for evaluation of the acetabular labrum.
Skeletal Radiol.
2001;
30(8)
423-430
-
10
Petersilge C A, Haque M A, Petersilge W J et al..
Acetabular labral tears: evaluation with MR arthrography.
Radiology.
1996;
200(1)
231-235
-
11
Knuesel P R, Pfirrmann C W, Noetzli H P et al..
MR arthrography of the hip: diagnostic performance of a dedicated water-excitation 3D double-echo steady-state sequence to detect cartilage lesions.
AJR Am J Roentgenol.
2004;
183(6)
1729-1735
-
12
Schmid M R, Notzli H P, Zanetti M, Wyss T F, Hodler J.
Cartilage lesions in the hip: diagnostic effectiveness of MR arthrography.
Radiology.
2003;
226(2)
382-386
-
13
Pfirrmann C W, Mengiardi B, Dora C et al..
Cam and pincer femoroacetabular impingement: characteristic MR arthrographic findings in 50 patients.
Radiology.
2006;
240(3)
778-785
-
14
Ganz R, Parvizi J, Beck M et al..
Femoroacetabular impingement: a cause for osteoarthritis of the hip.
Clin Orthop Relat Res.
2003;
(417)
112-120
-
15
Siebenrock K A, Schoeniger R, Ganz R.
Anterior femoro-acetabular impingement due to acetabular retroversion. Treatment with periacetabular osteotomy.
J Bone Joint Surg Am.
2003;
85-A(2)
278-286
-
16
Beck M, Leunig M, Parvizi J et al..
Anterior femoroacetabular impingement: part II. Midterm results of surgical treatment.
Clin Orthop Relat Res.
2004;
(418)
67-73
-
17
Ito K, Leunig M, Ganz R.
Histopathologic features of the acetabular labrum in femoroacetabular impingement.
Clin Orthop Relat Res.
2004;
(429)
262-271
-
18
Wagner S, Hofstetter W, Chiquet M et al..
Early osteoarthritic changes of human femoral head cartilage subsequent to femoro-acetabular impingement.
Osteoarthritis Cartilage.
2003;
11(7)
508-518
-
19
Kassarjian A, Yoon L S, Belzile E et al..
Triad of MR arthrographic findings in patients with cam-type femoroacetabular impingement.
Radiology.
2005;
236(2)
588-592
-
20
Leunig M, Ganz R.
Femoroacetabular impingement. A common cause of hip complaints leading to arthrosis.
Unfallchirurg.
2005;
108(1)
9-10
12-17
-
21
MacDonald S, Garbuz D, Ganz R.
Clinical evaluation of the symptomatic young adult hip.
Semin Arthroplasty.
1997;
8
3-9
-
22
Kellgren J H, Lawrence J S.
Radiological assessment of osteo-arthrosis.
Ann Rheum Dis.
1957;
16(4)
494-502
-
23
Eijer H, Myers S R, Ganz R.
Anterior femoroacetabular impingement after femoral neck fractures.
J Orthop Trauma.
2001;
15(7)
475-481
-
24
Siebenrock K A, Wahab K H, Werlen S et al..
Abnormal extension of the femoral head epiphysis as a cause of cam impingement.
Clin Orthop Relat Res.
2004;
(418)
54-60
-
25 Stulberg S, Cordell L, Harris W, Ramsey P, MacEwen G Unrecognized childhood hip disease: a major cause of idiopathic osteoarthritis of the hip. In: The Hip: Proceedings of the Third Open Scientific Meeting of the Hip 1975: 212-228
-
26
Locher S, Werlen S, Leunig M, Ganz R.
Inadequate detectability of early stages of coxarthrosis with conventional roentgen images.
Z Orthop Ihre Grenzgeb.
2001;
139(1)
70-74
-
27
Kubo T, Horii M, Harada Y et al..
Radial-sequence magnetic resonance imaging in evaluation of acetabular labrum.
J Orthop Sci.
1999;
4(5)
328-332
-
28
Ito K, Minka II M A, Leunig M, Werlen S, Ganz R.
Femoroacetabular impingement and the cam-effect. A MRI-based quantitative anatomical study of the femoral head-neck offset.
J Bone Joint Surg Br.
2001;
83(2)
171-176
-
29
Leunig M, Werlen S, Ungersbock A, Ito K, Ganz R.
Evaluation of the acetabular labrum by MR arthrography.
J Bone Joint Surg Br.
1997;
79(2)
230-234
-
30
Keeney J A, Peelle M W, Jackson J et al..
Magnetic resonance arthrography versus arthroscopy in the evaluation of articular hip pathology.
Clin Orthop Relat Res.
2004;
(429)
163-169
-
31
Czerny C, Kramer J, Neuhold A et al..
Magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance arthrography of the acetabular labrum: comparison with surgical findings.
Rofo.
2001;
173(8)
702-707
-
32
Mont M A, Hungerford D S.
Non-traumatic avascular necrosis of the femoral head.
J Bone Joint Surg Am.
1995;
77(3)
459-474
-
33
Beaulé P E, Zaragoza E, Copelan N.
Magnetic resonance imaging with gadolinium arthrography to assess acetabular cartilage delamination. A report of four cases.
J Bone Joint Surg Am.
2004;
86-A(10)
2294-2298
-
34
Nishii T, Nakanishi K, Sugano N et al..
Articular cartilage evaluation in osteoarthritis of the hip with MR imaging under continuous leg traction.
Magn Reson Imaging.
1998;
16(8)
871-875
-
35
Mintz D N, Hooper T, Connell D et al..
Magnetic resonance imaging of the hip: detection of labral and chondral abnormalities using noncontrast imaging.
Arthroscopy.
2005;
21(4)
385-393
-
36
Outerbridge R E.
The etiology of chondromalacia patellae.
J Bone Joint Surg Br.
1961;
43-B
752-757
-
37
Lenk S, Ludescher B, Martirosan P et al..
3.0 T high-resolution MR imaging of carpal ligaments and TFCC.
Rofo.
2004;
176(5)
664-667
-
38
Chung C B, Frank L R, Resnick D.
Cartilage imaging techniques: current clinical applications and state of the art imaging.
Clin Orthop Relat Res.
2001;
(391, Suppl)
S370-S378
-
39
Recht M, Bobic V, Burstein D et al..
Magnetic resonance imaging of articular cartilage.
Clin Orthop Relat Res.
2001;
(391, Suppl)
S379-S396
-
40
Saupe N, Prussmann K P, Luechinger R et al..
MR imaging of the wrist: comparison between 1.5- and 3-T MR imaging—preliminary experience.
Radiology.
2005;
234(1)
256-264
-
41
Sundberg T P, Toomayan G A, Major N M.
Evaluation of the acetabular labrum at 3.0-T MR imaging compared with 1.5-T MR arthrography: preliminary experience.
Radiology.
2006;
238(2)
706-711
-
42
Welsch G H, Mamisch T C, Domayer S E et al..
Cartilage T2 assessment at 3-T MR imaging: in vivo differentiation of normal hyaline cartilage from reparative tissue after two cartilage repair procedures—initial experience.
Radiology.
2008;
247(1)
154-161
-
43
Cova M, Toffanin R.
MR microscopy of hyaline cartilage: current status.
Eur Radiol.
2002;
12(4)
814-823
-
44
Poole A R, Kojima T, Yasuda T et al..
Composition and structure of articular cartilage: a template for tissue repair.
Clin Orthop Relat Res.
2001;
(391, suppl)
S26-S33
-
45
Venn M, Maroudas A.
Chemical composition and swelling of normal and osteoarthrotic femoral head cartilage. I. Chemical composition.
Ann Rheum Dis.
1977;
36(2)
121-129
-
46
Kim Y J, Jaramillo D, Millis M B, Gray M L, Burstein D.
Assessment of early osteoarthritis in hip dysplasia with delayed gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of cartilage.
J Bone Joint Surg Am.
2003;
85-A(10)
1987-1992
-
47
Bashir A, Gray M L, Burstein D.
Gd-DTPA2 as a measure of cartilage degradation.
Magn Reson Med.
1996;
36(5)
665-673
-
48
Mlynarik V, Trattnig S, Huber M, Zembsch A, Imhof H.
The role of relaxation times in monitoring proteoglycan depletion in articular cartilage.
J Magn Reson Imaging.
1999;
10(4)
497-502
-
49
Woertler K, Buerger H, Moeller J, Rummeny E J.
Patellar articular cartilage lesions: in vitro MR imaging evaluation after placement in gadopentetate dimeglumine solution.
Radiology.
2004;
230(3)
768-773
-
50
Bashir A, Gray M L, Boutin R D, Burstein D.
Glycosaminoglycan in articular cartilage: in vivo assessment with delayed Gd(DTPA)(2-)-enhanced MR imaging.
Radiology.
1997;
205(2)
551-558
-
51
Burstein D, Velyvis J, Scott K T et al..
Protocol issues for delayed Gd(DTPA)(2-)-enhanced MRI (dGEMRIC) for clinical evaluation of articular cartilage.
Magn Reson Med.
2001;
45(1)
36-41
-
52
Tiderius C J, Olsson L E, de Verdier H et al..
Gd-DTPA2)-enhanced MRI of femoral knee cartilage: a dose-response study in healthy volunteers.
Magn Reson Med.
2001;
46(6)
1067-1071
-
53
Tiderius C J, Olsson L E, Leander P, Ekberg O, Dahlberg L.
Delayed gadolinium-enhanced MRI of cartilage (dGEMRIC) in early knee osteoarthritis.
Magn Reson Med.
2003;
49(3)
488-492
-
54
Williams A, Gillis A, McKenzie C et al..
Glycosaminoglycan distribution in cartilage as determined by delayed gadolinium-enhanced MRI of cartilage (dGEMRIC): potential clinical applications.
AJR Am J Roentgenol.
2004;
182(1)
167-172
-
55
Trattnig S, Marlovits S, Gebetsroither S et al..
Three-dimensional delayed gadolinium-enhanced MRI of cartilage (dGEMRIC) for in vivo evaluation of reparative cartilage after matrix-associated autologous chondrocyte transplantation at 3.0T: preliminary results.
J Magn Reson Imaging.
2007;
26(4)
974-982
-
56
Xia Y.
Magic-angle effect in magnetic resonance imaging of articular cartilage: a review.
Invest Radiol.
2000;
35(10)
602-621
-
57
Smith H E, Mosher T J, Dardzinski B J et al..
Spatial variation in cartilage T2 of the knee.
J Magn Reson Imaging.
2001;
14(1)
50-55
-
58
Bredella M A, Tirman P F, Peterfy C G et al..
Accuracy of T2-weighted fast spin-echo MR imaging with fat saturation in detecting cartilage defects in the knee: comparison with arthroscopy in 130 patients.
AJR Am J Roentgenol.
1999;
172(4)
1073-1080
-
59
Burstein D, Gray M L.
Is MRI fulfilling its promise for molecular imaging of cartilage in arthritis?.
Osteoarthritis Cartilage.
2006;
14(11)
1087-1090
-
60
Mosher T J, Dardzinski B J.
Cartilage MRI T2 relaxation time mapping: overview and applications.
Semin Musculoskelet Radiol.
2004;
8(4)
355-368
-
61
Nieminen M T, Rieppo J, Toyras J et al..
T2 relaxation reveals spatial collagen architecture in articular cartilage: a comparative quantitative MRI and polarized light microscopic study.
Magn Reson Med.
2001;
46(3)
487-493
-
62
White L M, Sussman M S, Hurtig M et al..
Cartilage T2 assessment: differentiation of normal hyaline cartilage and reparative tissue after arthroscopic cartilage repair in equine subjects.
Radiology.
2006;
241(2)
407-414
-
63
Miller K L, Hargreaves B A, Gold G E, Pauly J M.
Steady-state diffusion-weighted imaging of in vivo knee cartilage.
Magn Reson Med.
2004;
51(2)
394-398
-
64
Mlynarik V, Sulzbacher I, Bittsansky M, Fuiko R, Trattnig S.
Investigation of apparent diffusion constant as an indicator of early degenerative disease in articular cartilage.
J Magn Reson Imaging.
2003;
17(4)
440-444
Tallal C MamischM.D.
Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Berne, Freiburgstrasse
CH-3010 Berne, Switzerland
eMail: mamisch@bwh.harvard.edu