Subscribe to RSS
DOI: 10.1055/s-0034-1376889
Cardiac Involvement in Sarcoidosis: Evolving Concepts in Diagnosis and Treatment
Publication History
Publication Date:
09 July 2014 (online)
![](https://www.thieme-connect.de/media/srccm/201403/lookinside/thumbnails/10.1055-s-0034-1376889-1.jpg)
Abstract
Clinically evident sarcoidosis involving the heart has been noted in at least 2 to 7% of patients with sarcoidosis, but occult involvement is much higher (> 20%). Cardiac sarcoidosis is often not recognized antemortem, as sudden death may be the presenting feature. Cardiac involvement may occur at any point during the course of sarcoidosis and may occur in the absence of pulmonary or systemic involvement. Sarcoidosis can involve any part of the heart, with protean manifestations. Prognosis of cardiac sarcoidosis is related to extent and site(s) of involvement. Most deaths due to cardiac sarcoidosis are due to arrhythmias or conduction defects, but granulomatous infiltration of the myocardium may be lethal. The definitive diagnosis of isolated cardiac sarcoidosis is difficult. The yield of endomyocardial biopsies is low; treatment of cardiac sarcoidosis is often warranted even in the absence of histologic proof. Radionuclide scans are integral to the diagnosis. Currently, 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography and gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging scans are the key imaging modalities to diagnose cardiac sarcoidosis. The prognosis of cardiac sarcoidosis is variable, but mortality rates of untreated cardiac sarcoidosis are high. Although randomized therapeutic trials have not been done, corticosteroids (alone or combined with additional immunosuppressive medications) remain the mainstay of treatment. Because of the potential for sudden cardiac death, implantable cardioverter-defibrillators should be placed in any patient with cardiac sarcoidosis and serious ventricular arrhythmias or heart block, and should be considered for cardiomyopathy. Cardiac transplantation is a viable option for patients with end-stage cardiac sarcoidosis refractory to medical therapy.
-
References
- 1 Iannuzzi MC, Rybicki BA, Teirstein AS. Sarcoidosis. N Engl J Med 2007; 357 (21) 2153-2165
- 2 Fleming H. Cardiac sarcoidosis. In: James DG, , ed. Sarcoidosis and other granulomatous disorders. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1994: 323-334
- 3 Fleming HA. Sarcoid heart disease. Br Heart J 1974; 36 (1) 54-68
- 4 Statement on sarcoidosis. Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS), the European Respiratory Society (ERS) and the World Association of Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders (WASOG) adopted by the ATS Board of Directors and by the ERS Executive Committee, February 1999. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160 (2) 736-755
- 5 Johns CJ, Michele TM. The clinical management of sarcoidosis. A 50-year experience at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Medicine (Baltimore) 1999; 78 (2) 65-111
- 6 Ayyala US, Nair AP, Padilla ML. Cardiac sarcoidosis. Clin Chest Med 2008; 29 (3) 493-508 , ix
- 7 Baughman RP, Teirstein AS, Judson MA , et al; Case Control Etiologic Study of Sarcoidosis (ACCESS) research group. Clinical characteristics of patients in a case control study of sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164 (10 Pt 1) 1885-1889
- 8 Nunes H, Freynet O, Naggara N , et al. Cardiac sarcoidosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 31 (4) 428-441
- 9 Kinney EL, Jackson GL, Reeves WC, Zelis R. Thallium-scan myocardial defects and echocardiographic abnormalities in patients with sarcoidosis without clinical cardiac dysfunction. An analysis of 44 patients. Am J Med 1980; 68 (4) 497-503
- 10 Tellier P, Paycha F, Antony I , et al. Reversibility by dipyridamole of thallium-201 myocardial scan defects in patients with sarcoidosis. Am J Med 1988; 85 (2) 189-193
- 11 Fahy GJ, Marwick T, McCreery CJ, Quigley PJ, Maurer BJ. Doppler echocardiographic detection of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. Chest 1996; 109 (1) 62-66
- 12 Bulkley BH, Rouleau JR, Whitaker JQ, Strauss HW, Pitt B. The use of 201thallium for myocardial perfusion imaging in sarcoid heart disease. Chest 1977; 72 (1) 27-32
- 13 Burstow DJ, Tajik AJ, Bailey KR, DeRemee RA, Taliercio CP. Two-dimensional echocardiographic findings in systemic sarcoidosis. Am J Cardiol 1989; 63 (7) 478-482
- 14 Perry A, Vuitch F. Causes of death in patients with sarcoidosis. A morphologic study of 38 autopsies with clinicopathologic correlations. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1995; 119 (2) 167-172
- 15 Roberts WC, McAllister Jr HA, Ferrans VJ. Sarcoidosis of the heart. A clinicopathologic study of 35 necropsy patients (group 1) and review of 78 previously described necropsy patients (group 11). Am J Med 1977; 63 (1) 86-108
- 16 Silverman KJ, Hutchins GM, Bulkley BH. Cardiac sarcoid: a clinicopathologic study of 84 unselected patients with systemic sarcoidosis. Circulation 1978; 58 (6) 1204-1211
- 17 Virmani R, Bures JC, Roberts WC. Cardiac sarcoidosis; a major cause of sudden death in young individuals. Chest 1980; 77 (3) 423-428
- 18 Bagwan IN, Hooper LV, Sheppard MN. Cardiac sarcoidosis and sudden death. The heart may look normal or mimic other cardiomyopathies. Virchows Arch 2011; 458 (6) 671-678
- 19 Matsui Y, Iwai K, Tachibana T , et al. Clinicopathological study of fatal myocardial sarcoidosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1976; 278: 455-469
- 20 Hamzeh NY, Wamboldt FS, Weinberger HD. Management of cardiac sarcoidosis in the United States: a Delphi study. Chest 2012; 141 (1) 154-162
- 21 Deng JC, Baughman RP, Lynch III JP. Cardiac involvement in sarcoidosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 23 (6) 513-527
- 22 Sharma OP, Maheshwari A, Thaker K. Myocardial sarcoidosis. Chest 1993; 103 (1) 253-258
- 23 Longcope WT, Freiman DG. A study of sarcoidosis; based on a combined investigation of 160 cases including 30 autopsies from The Johns Hopkins Hospital and Massachusetts General Hospital. Medicine (Baltimore) 1952; 31 (1) 1-132
- 24 Yazaki Y, Isobe M, Hiramitsu S , et al. Comparison of clinical features and prognosis of cardiac sarcoidosis and idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1998; 82 (4) 537-540
- 25 Yazaki Y, Isobe M, Hiroe M , et al; Central Japan Heart Study Group. Prognostic determinants of long-term survival in Japanese patients with cardiac sarcoidosis treated with prednisone. Am J Cardiol 2001; 88 (9) 1006-1010
- 26 Sekiguchi M, Yazaki Y, Isobe M, Hiroe M. Cardiac sarcoidosis: diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic considerations. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1996; 10 (5) 495-510
- 27 Iwai K, Sekiguti M, Hosoda Y , et al. Racial difference in cardiac sarcoidosis incidence observed at autopsy. Sarcoidosis 1994; 11 (1) 26-31
- 28 Sekiguchi M, Numao Y, Imai M, Furuie T, Mikami R. Clinical and histopathological profile of sarcoidosis of the heart and acute idiopathic myocarditis. Concepts through a study employing endomyocardial biopsy. I. Sarcoidosis. Jpn Circ J 1980; 44 (4) 249-263
- 29 Tachibana T, Ohmori F, Ueda E. Clinical study on cardiac sarcoidosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1986; 465: 530-542
- 30 Gideon NM, Mannino DM. Sarcoidosis mortality in the United States 1979-1991: an analysis of multiple-cause mortality data. Am J Med 1996; 100 (4) 423-427
- 31 Morimoto T, Azuma A, Abe S , et al. Epidemiology of sarcoidosis in Japan. Eur Respir J 2008; 31 (2) 372-379
- 32 Iannuzzi MC. Genetics of sarcoidosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2007; 28 (1) 15-21
- 33 Takashige N, Naruse TK, Matsumori A , et al. Genetic polymorphisms at the tumour necrosis factor loci (TNFA and TNFB) in cardiac sarcoidosis. Tissue Antigens 1999; 54 (2) 191-193
- 34 Meyer T, Lauschke J, Ruppert V, Richter A, Pankuweit S, Maisch B. Isolated cardiac sarcoidosis associated with the expression of a splice variant coding for a truncated BTNL2 protein. Cardiology 2008; 109 (2) 117-121
- 35 Valentonyte R, Hampe J, Huse K , et al. Sarcoidosis is associated with a truncating splice site mutation in BTNL2. Nat Genet 2005; 37 (4) 357-364
- 36 Rybicki BA, Walewski JL, Maliarik MJ, Kian H, Iannuzzi MC ; ACCESS Research Group. The BTNL2 gene and sarcoidosis susceptibility in African Americans and Whites. Am J Hum Genet 2005; 77 (3) 491-499
- 37 Spagnolo P, Sato H, Grutters JC , et al. Analysis of BTNL2 genetic polymorphisms in British and Dutch patients with sarcoidosis. Tissue Antigens 2007; 70 (3) 219-227
- 38 Suzuki H, Ota M, Meguro A , et al. Genetic characterization and susceptibility for sarcoidosis in Japanese patients: risk factors of BTNL2 gene polymorphisms and HLA class II alleles. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2012; 53 (11) 7109-7115
- 39 Naruse TK, Matsuzawa Y, Ota M , et al. HLA-DQB1*0601 is primarily associated with the susceptibility to cardiac sarcoidosis. Tissue Antigens 2000; 56 (1) 52-57
- 40 Grunewald J. Review: role of genetics in susceptibility and outcome of sarcoidosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 31 (4) 380-389
- 41 Lagana SM, Parwani AV, Nichols LC. Cardiac sarcoidosis: a pathology-focused review. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2010; 134 (7) 1039-1046
- 42 Chapelon-Abric C, de Zuttere D, Duhaut P , et al. Cardiac sarcoidosis: a retrospective study of 41 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 2004; 83 (6) 315-334
- 43 Tavora F, Cresswell N, Li L, Ripple M, Solomon C, Burke A. Comparison of necropsy findings in patients with sarcoidosis dying suddenly from cardiac sarcoidosis versus dying suddenly from other causes. Am J Cardiol 2009; 104 (4) 571-577
- 44 Stewart RE, Graham DM, Godfrey GW, Friedman HZ, Das SK, Shea MJ. Rapidly progressive heart failure resulting from cardiac sarcoidosis. Am Heart J 1988; 115 (6) 1324-1326
- 45 Shammas RL, Movahed A. Sarcoidosis of the heart. Clin Cardiol 1993; 16 (6) 462-472
- 46 Fleming HA, Bailey SM. Sarcoid heart disease. J R Coll Physicians Lond 1981; 15 (4) 245-246 , 249–253
- 47 Kim JS, Judson MA, Donnino R , et al. Cardiac sarcoidosis. Am Heart J 2009; 157 (1) 9-21
- 48 Aizer A, Stern EH, Gomes JA, Teirstein AS, Eckart RE, Mehta D. Usefulness of programmed ventricular stimulation in predicting future arrhythmic events in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis. Am J Cardiol 2005; 96 (2) 276-282
- 49 Thachil A, Christopher J, Sastry BK , et al. Monomorphic ventricular tachycardia and mediastinal adenopathy due to granulomatous infiltration in patients with preserved ventricular function. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011; 58 (1) 48-55
- 50 Viles-Gonzalez JF, Pastori L, Fischer A, Wisnivesky JP, Goldman MG, Mehta D. Supraventricular arrhythmias in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis prevalence, predictors, and clinical implications. Chest 2013; 143 (4) 1085-1090
- 51 Zipse MM, Sauer WH. Electrophysiologic manifestations of cardiac sarcoidosis. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2013; 19 (5) 485-492
- 52 Yazaki Y, Hongo M, Hiroyoshi Y , et al. Cardiac sarcoidosis in Japan: treatment and prognosis. In: Sekiguchi M, Richardson PJ, , eds. Prognosis and Treatment of Cardiomyopathy and Myocarditis. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press; 1994: 341-353
- 53 Zoneraich S, Gupta MP, Mehta J, Zoneraich O, Wessely Z. Myocardial sarcoidosis presenting as acute mitral insufficiency. Chest 1974; 66 (4) 452-454
- 54 Desai MY, Fallert MA. Rapidly progressing congestive heart failure due to cardiac sarcoidosis involving papillary muscles: a case report and brief review of the literature. Cardiol Rev 2003; 11 (4) 163-168
- 55 Raftery EB, Oakley CM, Goodwin JF. Acute subvalvar mitral incompetence. Lancet 1966; 2 (7459) 360-365
- 56 Israel RH, Poe RH. Massive pericardial effusion in sarcoidosis. Respiration 1994; 61 (3) 176-180
- 57 Garrett J, O'Neill H, Blake S. Constrictive pericarditis associated with sarcoidosis. Am Heart J 1984; 107 (2) 394
- 58 Shiff AD, Blatt CJ, Colp C. Recurrent pericardial effusion secondary to sarcoidosis of the pericardium. N Engl J Med 1969; 281 (3) 141-143
- 59 Kinney E, Murthy R, Ascunce G, Donohoe R, Zelis R. Pericardial effusions in sarcoidosis. Chest 1979; 76 (4) 476-478
- 60 Gregor P, Widimsky P, Sladkova T, Petrikova J, Cervenka V, Visek V. Echocardiography in sarcoidosis. Jpn Heart J 1984; 25 (4) 499-508
- 61 Verkleeren JL, Glover MU, Bloor C, Joswig BC. Cardiac tamponade secondary to sarcoidosis. Am Heart J 1983; 106 (3) 601-603
- 62 Angomachalelis N, Hourzamanis A, Salem N , et al. Pericardial effusion concomitant with specific heart muscle disease in systemic sarcoidosis. Postgrad Med J 1994; 70 (Suppl. 01) S8-S12
- 63 Barton JH, Tavora F, Farb A, Li L, Burke AP. Unusual cardiovascular manifestations of sarcoidosis, a report of three cases: coronary artery aneurysm with myocardial infarction, symptomatic mitral valvular disease, and sudden death from ruptured splenic artery. Cardiovasc Pathol 2010; 19 (4) e119-e123
- 64 Wait JL, Movahed A. Anginal chest pain in sarcoidosis. Thorax 1989; 44 (5) 391-395
- 65 Lam CS, Tolep KA, Metke MP, Glockner J, Cooper Jr LT. Coronary sarcoidosis presenting as acute coronary syndrome. Clin Cardiol 2009; 32 (6) E68-E71
- 66 Ward EV, Nazari J, Edelman RR. Coronary artery vasculitis as a presentation of cardiac sarcoidosis. Circulation 2012; 125 (6) e344-e346
- 67 Jain A, Starek PJ, Delany DL. Ventricular tachycardia and ventricular aneurysm due to unrecognized sarcoidosis. Clin Cardiol 1990; 13 (10) 738-740
- 68 Kosuge H, Noda M, Kakuta T, Kishi Y, Isobe M, Numano F. Left ventricular apical aneurysm in cardiac sarcoidosis. Jpn Heart J 2001; 42 (2) 265-269
- 69 Marks A, Anderson MH, Harrison NK. Ventricular aneurysm secondary to sarcoid disease. Heart 2004; 90 (6) 694
- 70 Lull RJ, Dunn BE, Gregoratos G, Cox WA, Fisher GW. Ventricular aneurysm due to cardiac sarcoidosis with surgical cure of refractory ventricular tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 1972; 30 (3) 282-287
- 71 Haraki T, Ueda K, Shintani H, Hayashi T, Taki J, Mabuchi H. Spontaneous development of left ventricular aneurysm in a patient with untreated cardiac sarcoidosis. Circ J 2002; 66 (5) 519-521
- 72 Kandolin R, Lehtonen J, Graner M , et al. Diagnosing isolated cardiac sarcoidosis. J Intern Med 2011; 270 (5) 461-468
- 73 Hiraga H, Iwai K, Hiroe M, Omori F, Sekiguchi M, Tachibana T. Guidelines for Diagnosis of Cardiac Sarcoidosis: Study Report on Diffuse Pulmonary Diseases. Tokyo: The Japanese Ministry of Health and Ministry; 1993: 23-24
- 74 Judson MA, Baughman RP, Teirstein AS, Terrin ML, Yeager Jr H. Defining organ involvement in sarcoidosis: the ACCESS proposed instrument. ACCESS Research Group. A Case Control Etiologic Study of Sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 1999; 16 (1) 75-86
- 75 Okayama K, Kurata C, Tawarahara K, Wakabayashi Y, Chida K, Sato A. Diagnostic and prognostic value of myocardial scintigraphy with thallium-201 and gallium-67 in cardiac sarcoidosis. Chest 1995; 107 (2) 330-334
- 76 White JA, Rajchl M, Butler J, Thompson RT, Prato FS, Wisenberg G. Active cardiac sarcoidosis: first clinical experience of simultaneous positron emission tomography—magnetic resonance imaging for the diagnosis of cardiac disease. Circulation 2013; 127 (22) e639-e641
- 77 Patel MR, Cawley PJ, Heitner JF , et al. Detection of myocardial damage in patients with sarcoidosis. Circulation 2009; 120 (20) 1969-1977
- 78 Yang Y, Safka K, Graham JJ , et al. Correlation of late gadolinium enhancement MRI and quantitative T2 measurement in cardiac sarcoidosis. J Magn Reson Imaging 2014; 39 (3) 609-616
- 79 Youssef G, Leung E, Mylonas I , et al. The use of 18F-FDG PET in the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis: a systematic review and metaanalysis including the Ontario experience. J Nucl Med 2012; 53 (2) 241-248
- 80 Dubrey SW, Falk RH. Diagnosis and management of cardiac sarcoidosis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2010; 52 (4) 336-346
- 81 Akbar JJ, Meyer CA, Shipley RT, Vagal AS. Cardiopulmonary imaging in sarcoidosis. Clin Chest Med 2008; 29 (3) 429-443 , viii
- 82 Thunéll M, Bjerle P, Stjernberg N. ECG abnormalities in patients with sarcoidosis. Acta Med Scand 1983; 213 (2) 115-118
- 83 Gibbons WJ, Levy RD, Nava S , et al. Subclinical cardiac dysfunction in sarcoidosis. Chest 1991; 100 (1) 44-50
- 84 Schuller JL, Lowery CM, Zipse M , et al. Diagnostic utility of signal-averaged electrocardiography for detection of cardiac sarcoidosis. Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol 2011; 16 (1) 70-76
- 85 Schuller JL, Olson MD, Zipse MM , et al. Electrocardiographic characteristics in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis indicating cardiac involvement. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2011; 22 (11) 1243-1248
- 86 Suzuki T, Kanda T, Kubota S, Imai S, Murata K. Holter monitoring as a noninvasive indicator of cardiac involvement in sarcoidosis. Chest 1994; 106 (4) 1021-1024
- 87 Thunell M, Bjerle P, Karp K, Stjernberg N. Exercise test in patients with sarcoidosis. The importance of repolarization disturbances. Acta Med Scand 1988; 223 (1) 69-73
- 88 Lewin RF, Mor R, Spitzer S, Arditti A, Hellman C, Agmon J. Echocardiographic evaluation of patients with systemic sarcoidosis. Am Heart J 1985; 110 (1 Pt 1) 116-122
- 89 Moiseyev SV, Kornev BM, Shatkovsky NP, Eventov AZ, Pisareva NA. Non-invasive diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis. Lancet 1987; 2 (8561) 739-740
- 90 Winters SL, Cohen M, Greenberg S , et al. Sustained ventricular tachycardia associated with sarcoidosis: assessment of the underlying cardiac anatomy and the prospective utility of programmed ventricular stimulation, drug therapy and an implantable antitachycardia device. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991; 18 (4) 937-943
- 91 Padilla ML. Cardiac sarcoidosis. In: Baughman RP, , ed. Sarcoidosis. New York, NY: Informa USA; 2010: 515-551
- 92 Angomachalelis N, Hourzamanis A, Vamvalis C, Gavrielides A. Doppler echocardiographic evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function in patients with systemic sarcoidosis. Postgrad Med J 1992; 68 (Suppl. 01) S52-S56
- 93 Mañá J. Nuclear imaging. 67Gallium, 201thallium, 18F-labeled fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography. Clin Chest Med 1997; 18 (4) 799-811
- 94 Hirose Y, Ishida Y, Hayashida K , et al. Myocardial involvement in patients with sarcoidosis. An analysis of 75 patients. Clin Nucl Med 1994; 19 (6) 522-526
- 95 Tawarahara K, Kurata C, Okayama K, Kobayashi A, Yamazaki N. Thallium-201 and gallium 67 single photon emission computed tomographic imaging in cardiac sarcoidosis. Am Heart J 1992; 124 (5) 1383-1384
- 96 Taki J, Nakajima K, Bunko H, Ohguchi M, Tonami N, Hisada K. Cardiac sarcoidosis demonstrated by Tl-201 and Ga-67 SPECT imaging. Clin Nucl Med 1990; 15 (9) 636-639
- 97 Le Guludec D, Menad F, Faraggi M, Weinmann P, Battesti JP, Valeyre D. Myocardial sarcoidosis. Clinical value of technetium-99m sestamibi tomoscintigraphy. Chest 1994; 106 (6) 1675-1682
- 98 Tellier P, Valeyre D, Nitenberg A, Foult JM, Bedig G, Battesti JP. Cardiac sarcoidosis: reversion of myocardial perfusion abnormalities by dipyridamole. Eur J Nucl Med 1985; 11 (6-7) 201-204
- 99 Yamamoto N, Gotoh K, Yagi Y , et al. Thallium-201 myocardial SPECT findings at rest in sarcoidosis. Ann Nucl Med 1993; 7 (2) 97-103
- 100 Haywood LJ, Sharma OP, Siegel ME , et al. Detection of myocardial sarcoidosis by thallium 201 imaging. J Natl Med Assoc 1982; 74 (10) 959-964
- 101 Kurata C, Sakata K, Taguchi T , et al. SPECT imaging with Tl-201 and Ga-67 in myocardial sarcoidosis. Clin Nucl Med 1990; 15 (6) 408-411
- 102 Tajima T, Naito T, Dohi Y, Miyamae T. Ga-67 and Tl-201 imaging in sarcoidosis involving the myocardium. Clin Nucl Med 1981; 6 (3) 120-121
- 103 Nagatomo Y, Imamura T, Koiwaya Y , et al. Thallium-201 and gallium-67 myocardial scintigraphy for the evaluation of sarcoid involvement. Clin Nucl Med 1987; 12 (4) 335-336
- 104 Forman MB, Sandler MP, Sacks GA, Kronenberg MW, Powers TA. Radionuclide imaging in myocardial sarcoidosis. Demonstration of myocardial uptake of technetium pyrophosphate99m and gallium. Chest 1983; 83 (3) 578-580
- 105 Eguchi M, Tsuchihashi K, Hotta D , et al. Technetium-99m sestamibi/tetrofosmin myocardial perfusion scanning in cardiac and noncardiac sarcoidosis. Cardiology 2000; 94 (3) 193-199
- 106 Kaminaga T, Takeshita T, Yamauchi T, Kawamura H, Yasuda M. The role of iodine-123-labeled 15-(p-iodophenyl)-3R,S-methylpentadecanoic acid scintigraphy in the detection of local myocardial involvement of sarcoidosis. Int J Cardiol 2004; 94 (1) 99-103
- 107 Matsuo S, Nakamura Y, Matsui T, Matsumoto T, Kinoshita M. Detection of denervated but viable myocardium in cardiac sarcoidosis with I-123 MIBG and Tl-201 SPECT imaging. Ann Nucl Med 2001; 15 (4) 373-375
- 108 Knapp WH, Bentrup A, Ohlmeier H. Indium-111-labelled antimyosin antibody imaging in a patient with cardiac sarcoidosis. Eur J Nucl Med 1993; 20 (1) 80-82
- 109 Tahara N, Tahara A, Nitta Y , et al. Heterogeneous myocardial FDG uptake and the disease activity in cardiac sarcoidosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2010; 3 (12) 1219-1228
- 110 Matthews R, Bench T, Meng H, Franceschi D, Relan N, Brown DL. Diagnosis and monitoring of cardiac sarcoidosis with delayed-enhanced MRI and 18F-FDG PET-CT. J Nucl Cardiol 2012; 19 (4) 807-810
- 111 Nishiyama Y, Yamamoto Y, Fukunaga K , et al. Comparative evaluation of 18F-FDG PET and 67Ga scintigraphy in patients with sarcoidosis. J Nucl Med 2006; 47 (10) 1571-1576
- 112 Braun JJ, Kessler R, Constantinesco A, Imperiale A. 18F-FDG PET/CT in sarcoidosis management: review and report of 20 cases. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2008; 35 (8) 1537-1543
- 113 Teirstein AS, Machac J, Almeida O, Lu P, Padilla ML, Iannuzzi MC. Results of 188 whole-body fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography scans in 137 patients with sarcoidosis. Chest 2007; 132 (6) 1949-1953
- 114 Mostard RL, Verschakelen JA, van Kroonenburgh MJ , et al. Severity of pulmonary involvement and (18)F-FDG PET activity in sarcoidosis. Respir Med 2013; 107 (3) 439-447
- 115 Mostard RL, Vöö S, van Kroonenburgh MJ , et al. Inflammatory activity assessment by F18 FDG-PET/CT in persistent symptomatic sarcoidosis. Respir Med 2011; 105 (12) 1917-1924
- 116 Keijsers RG, Verzijlbergen EJ, van den Bosch JM , et al. 18F-FDG PET as a predictor of pulmonary function in sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2011; 28 (2) 123-129
- 117 Sobic-Saranovic D, Artiko V, Obradovic V. FDG PET imaging in sarcoidosis. Semin Nucl Med 2013; 43 (6) 404-411
- 118 Okumura W, Iwasaki T, Toyama T , et al. Usefulness of fasting 18F-FDG PET in identification of cardiac sarcoidosis. J Nucl Med 2004; 45 (12) 1989-1998
- 119 Blankstein R, Osborne M, Naya M , et al. Cardiac positron emission tomography enhances prognostic assessments of patients with suspected cardiac sarcoidosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014; 63 (4) 329-336
- 120 Schatka I, Bengel FM. Advanced imaging of cardiac sarcoidosis. J Nucl Med 2014; 55 (1) 99-106
- 121 Ishimaru S, Tsujino I, Takei T , et al. Focal uptake on 18F-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography images indicates cardiac involvement of sarcoidosis. Eur Heart J 2005; 26 (15) 1538-1543
- 122 Okumura W, Iwasaki T, Ueda T , et al. Usefulness of 18F-FDG PET for diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis. Kaku igaku Jpn J Nucl Med 1999; 36: 341-348
- 123 Yamagishi H, Shirai N, Takagi M , et al. Identification of cardiac sarcoidosis with (13)N-NH(3)/(18)F-FDG PET. J Nucl Med 2003; 44 (7) 1030-1036
- 124 Takeda N, Yokoyama I, Hiroi Y , et al. Positron emission tomography predicted recovery of complete A-V nodal dysfunction in a patient with cardiac sarcoidosis. Circulation 2002; 105 (9) 1144-1145
- 125 Ohira H, Tsujino I, Ishimaru S , et al. Myocardial imaging with 18F-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in sarcoidosis. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2008; 35 (5) 933-941
- 126 Vignaux O. Cardiac sarcoidosis: spectrum of MRI features. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005; 184 (1) 249-254
- 127 Giesbrandt KJ, Bolan CW, Shapiro BP, Edwards WD, Mergo PJ. Diffuse diseases of the myocardium: MRI-pathologic review of cardiomyopathies with dilatation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2013; 200 (3) W274-82
- 128 Ordovas KG, Higgins CB. Delayed contrast enhancement on MR images of myocardium: past, present, future. Radiology 2011; 261 (2) 358-374
- 129 Serra JJ, Monte GU, Mello ES , et al. Images in cardiovascular medicine. Cardiac sarcoidosis evaluated by delayed-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 2003; 107 (20) e188-e189s
- 130 Chandra M, Silverman ME, Oshinski J, Pettigrew R. Diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis aided by MRI. Chest 1996; 110 (2) 562-565
- 131 Shimada T, Shimada K, Sakane T , et al. Diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis and evaluation of the effects of steroid therapy by gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Med 2001; 110 (7) 520-527
- 132 Doherty MJ, Kumar SK, Nicholson AA, McGivern DV. Cardiac sarcoidosis: the value of magnetic resonance imaging in diagnosis and assessment of response to treatment. Respir Med 1998; 92 (4) 697-699
- 133 Eliasch H, Juhlin-Dannfelt A, Sjögren I, Terent A. Magnetic resonance imaging as an aid to the diagnosis and treatment evaluation of suspected myocardial sarcoidosis in a fighter pilot. Aviat Space Environ Med 1995; 66 (10) 1010-1013
- 134 Matsuki M, Matsuo M. MR findings of myocardial sarcoidosis. Clin Radiol 2000; 55 (4) 323-325
- 135 Bajaj AK, Kopelman HA, Echt DS. Cardiac sarcoidosis with sudden death: treatment with the automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Am Heart J 1988; 116 (2 Pt 1) 557-560
- 136 Danias PG. Gadolinium-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance imaging: expanding the spectrum of clinical applications. Am J Med 2001; 110 (7) 591-592
- 137 Vignaux O, Dhote R, Duboc D , et al. Clinical significance of myocardial magnetic resonance abnormalities in patients with sarcoidosis: a 1-year follow-up study. Chest 2002; 122 (6) 1895-1901
- 138 Smedema JP, Snoep G, van Kroonenburgh MP , et al. Evaluation of the accuracy of gadolinium-enhanced cardiovascular magnetic resonance in the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 45 (10) 1683-1690
- 139 Ichinose A, Otani H, Oikawa M , et al. MRI of cardiac sarcoidosis: basal and subepicardial localization of myocardial lesions and their effect on left ventricular function. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 191 (3) 862-869
- 140 Matoh F, Satoh H, Shiraki K , et al. The usefulness of delayed enhancement magnetic resonance imaging for diagnosis and evaluation of cardiac function in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis. J Cardiol 2008; 51 (3) 179-188
- 141 Watanabe E, Kimura F, Nakajima T , et al. Late gadolinium enhancement in cardiac sarcoidosis: characteristic magnetic resonance findings and relationship with left ventricular function. J Thorac Imaging 2013; 28 (1) 60-66
- 142 Yoshida A, Ishibashi-Ueda H, Yamada N , et al. Direct comparison of the diagnostic capability of cardiac magnetic resonance and endomyocardial biopsy in patients with heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2013; 15 (2) 166-175
- 143 Cheong BY, Muthupillai R, Nemeth M , et al. The utility of delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging for identifying nonischemic myocardial fibrosis in asymptomatic patients with biopsy-proven systemic sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2009; 26 (1) 39-46
- 144 Ishibashi K, Takeda M, Yamahara Y. Clinical utility of a magnetic resonance-conditional pacemaker in a patient with cardiac sarcoidosis. Intern Med 2013; 52 (12) 1341-1345
- 145 Shafee MA, Fukuda K, Wakayama Y , et al. Delayed enhancement on cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is a poor prognostic factor in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis. J Cardiol 2012; 60 (6) 448-453
- 146 Wilkoff BL, Bello D, Taborsky M , et al; EnRhythm MRI SureScan Pacing System Study Investigators. Magnetic resonance imaging in patients with a pacemaker system designed for the magnetic resonance environment. Heart Rhythm 2011; 8 (1) 65-73
- 147 Stevens SM, Tung R, Rashid S , et al. Device artifact reduction for magnetic resonance imaging of patients with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators and ventricular tachycardia: late gadolinium enhancement correlation with electroanatomic mapping. Heart Rhythm 2014; 11 (2) 289-298
- 148 Ishikawa T, Kondoh H, Nakagawa S, Koiwaya Y, Tanaka K. Steroid therapy in cardiac sarcoidosis. Increased left ventricular contractility concomitant with electrocardiographic improvement after prednisolone. Chest 1984; 85 (3) 445-447
- 149 Lorell B, Alderman EL, Mason JW. Cardiac sarcoidosis. Diagnosis with endomyocardial biopsy and treatment with corticosteroids. Am J Cardiol 1978; 42 (1) 143-146
- 150 Uemura A, Morimoto S, Hiramitsu S, Kato Y, Ito T, Hishida H. Histologic diagnostic rate of cardiac sarcoidosis: evaluation of endomyocardial biopsies. Am Heart J 1999; 138 (2 Pt 1) 299-302
- 151 Ratner SJ, Fenoglio Jr JJ, Ursell PC. Utility of endomyocardial biopsy in the diagnosis of cardiac sarcoidosis. Chest 1986; 90 (4) 528-533
- 152 Felker GM, Hu W, Hare JM, Hruban RH, Baughman KL, Kasper EK. The spectrum of dilated cardiomyopathy. The Johns Hopkins experience with 1,278 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 1999; 78 (4) 270-283
- 153 Veinot JP. Diagnostic endomyocardial biopsy pathology: secondary myocardial diseases and other clinical indications - a review. Can J Cardiol 2002; 18 (3) 287-296
- 154 Basso C, Thiene G, Corrado D, Angelini A, Nava A, Valente M. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Dysplasia, dystrophy, or myocarditis?. Circulation 1996; 94 (5) 983-991
- 155 Dechering DG, Kochhäuser S, Wasmer K , et al. Electrophysiological characteristics of ventricular tachyarrhythmias in cardiac sarcoidosis versus arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Heart Rhythm 2013; 10 (2) 158-164
- 156 Choo WK, Denison AR, Miller DR, Dempsey OJ, Dawson DK, Broadhurst PA. Cardiac sarcoid or arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy: a role for positron emission tomography (PET)?. J Nucl Cardiol 2013; 20 (3) 479-480
- 157 Litovsky SH, Burke AP, Virmani R. Giant cell myocarditis: an entity distinct from sarcoidosis characterized by multiphasic myocyte destruction by cytotoxic T cells and histiocytic giant cells. Mod Pathol 1996; 9 (12) 1126-1134
- 158 Okura Y, Dec GW, Hare JM , et al. A clinical and histopathologic comparison of cardiac sarcoidosis and idiopathic giant cell myocarditis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41 (2) 322-329
- 159 Yoshizawa S, Kato TS, Mancini D, Marboe CC. Outcome of patients having heart transplantation for lymphocytic myocarditis. Am J Cardiol 2013; 112 (3) 405-410
- 160 Mavrogeni S, Sfikakis PP, Gialafos E , et al. Cardiac tissue characterization and the diagnostic value of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in systemic connective tissue diseases. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2014; 66 (1) 104-112
- 161 Kang EJ, Kim SM, Choe YH, Lee GY, Lee KN, Kim DK. Takayasu arteritis: assessment of coronary arterial abnormalities with 128-section dual-source CT angiography of the coronary arteries and aorta. Radiology 2014; 270 (1) 74-81
- 162 Miszalski-Jamka T, Szczeklik W, Sokołowska B , et al. Standard and feature tracking magnetic resonance evidence of myocardial involvement in Churg-Strauss syndrome and granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener's) in patients with normal electrocardiograms and transthoracic echocardiography. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging 2013; 29 (4) 843-853
- 163 Mohty D, Damy T, Cosnay P , et al. Cardiac amyloidosis: updates in diagnosis and management. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2013; 106 (10) 528-540
- 164 Marques N, Gan VC, Leo YS. Dengue myocarditis in Singapore: two case reports. Infection 2013; 41 (3) 709-714
- 165 Nunes MC, Dones W, Morillo CA, Encina JJ, Ribeiro AL ; Council on Chagas Disease of the Inter-American Society of Cardiology. Chagas disease: an overview of clinical and epidemiological aspects. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013; 62 (9) 767-776
- 166 Homsi M, Alsayed L, Safadi B, Mahenthiran J, Das MK. Fragmented QRS complexes on 12-lead ECG: a marker of cardiac sarcoidosis as detected by gadolinium cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol 2009; 14 (4) 319-326
- 167 Takagi M, Yokoyama Y, Aonuma K, Aihara N, Hiraoka M ; Japan Idiopathic Ventricular Fibrillation Study (J-IVFS) Investigators. Clinical characteristics and risk stratification in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients with brugada syndrome: multicenter study in Japan. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2007; 18 (12) 1244-1251
- 168 Priori SG, Gasparini M, Napolitano C , et al. Risk stratification in Brugada syndrome: results of the PRELUDE (PRogrammed ELectrical stimUlation preDictive valuE) registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 59 (1) 37-45
- 169 Catalano O, Antonaci S, Moro G , et al. Magnetic resonance investigations in Brugada syndrome reveal unexpectedly high rate of structural abnormalities. Eur Heart J 2009; 30 (18) 2241-2248
- 170 Quarta G, Husain SI, Flett AS , et al. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy mimics: role of cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2013; 15: 16
- 171 Steckman DA, Schneider PM, Schuller JL , et al. Utility of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging to differentiate cardiac sarcoidosis from arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 2012; 110 (4) 575-579
- 172 Mehta D, Lubitz SA, Frankel Z , et al. Cardiac involvement in patients with sarcoidosis: diagnostic and prognostic value of outpatient testing. Chest 2008; 133 (6) 1426-1435
- 173 Mehta D, Mori N, Goldbarg SH, Lubitz S, Wisnivesky JP, Teirstein A. Primary prevention of sudden cardiac death in silent cardiac sarcoidosis: role of programmed ventricular stimulation. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2011; 4 (1) 43-48
- 174 Uusimaa P, Ylitalo K, Anttonen O , et al. Ventricular tachyarrhythmia as a primary presentation of sarcoidosis. Europace 2008; 10 (6) 760-766
- 175 Kato Y, Morimoto S, Uemura A, Hiramitsu S, Ito T, Hishida H. Efficacy of corticosteroids in sarcoidosis presenting with atrioventricular block. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2003; 20 (2) 133-137
- 176 Pierre-Louis B, Prasad A, Frishman WH. Cardiac manifestations of sarcoidosis and therapeutic options. Cardiol Rev 2009; 17 (4) 153-158
- 177 Sadek MM, Yung D, Birnie DH, Beanlands RS, Nery PB. Corticosteroid therapy for cardiac sarcoidosis: a systematic review. Can J Cardiol 2013; 29 (9) 1034-1041
- 178 Grutters JC, van den Bosch JM. Corticosteroid treatment in sarcoidosis. Eur Respir J 2006; 28 (3) 627-636
- 179 Baughman RP, Culver DA, Judson MA. A concise review of pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183 (5) 573-581
- 180 Sugisaki K, Yamaguchi T, Nagai S , et al. Clinical characteristics of 195 Japanese sarcoidosis patients treated with oral corticosteroids. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2003; 20 (3) 222-226
- 181 Yodogawa K, Seino Y, Ohara T, Takayama H, Katoh T, Mizuno K. Effect of corticosteroid therapy on ventricular arrhythmias in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis. Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol 2011; 16 (2) 140-147
- 182 Yodogawa K, Seino Y, Shiomura R , et al. Recovery of atrioventricular block following steroid therapy in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis. J Cardiol 2013; 62 (5) 320-325
- 183 Stees CS, Khoo MS, Lowery CM, Sauer WH. Ventricular tachycardia storm successfully treated with immunosuppression and catheter ablation in a patient with cardiac sarcoidosis. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2011; 22 (2) 210-213
- 184 Hiramastu S, Tada H, Naito S, Oshima S, Taniguchi K. Steroid treatment deteriorated ventricular tachycardia in a patient with right ventricle-dominant cardiac sarcoidosis. Int J Cardiol 2009; 132 (2) e85-e87
- 185 Lazar CA, Culver DA. Treatment of sarcoidosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 31 (4) 501-518
- 186 Wang T, Weigt SS, Belperio JA, Lynch III JP. Immunosuppressive and cytotoxic therapy: pharmacology, toxicities, and monitoring. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 32 (3) 346-370
- 187 Lynch III JP, McCune WJ. Immunosuppressive and cytotoxic pharmacotherapy for pulmonary disorders. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155 (2) 395-420
- 188 Demeter SL. Myocardial sarcoidosis unresponsive to steroids. Treatment with cyclophosphamide. Chest 1988; 94 (1) 202-203
- 189 Barnabe C, McMeekin J, Howarth A, Martin L. Successful treatment of cardiac sarcoidosis with infliximab. J Rheumatol 2008; 35 (8) 1686-1687
- 190 Uthman I, Touma Z, Khoury M. Cardiac sarcoidosis responding to monotherapy with infliximab. Clin Rheumatol 2007; 26 (11) 2001-2003
- 191 Mezaki T, Chinushi M, Washizuka T , et al. Discrepancy between inducibility of ventricular tachycardia and activity of cardiac sarcoidosis. Requirement of defibrillator implantation for the inactive stage of cardiac sarcoidosis. Intern Med 2001; 40 (8) 731-735
- 192 Huang PL, Brooks R, Carpenter C, Garan H. Antiarrhythmic therapy guided by programmed electrical stimulation in cardiac sarcoidosis with ventricular tachycardia. Am Heart J 1991; 121 (2 Pt 1) 599-601
- 193 Kowey PR, Waxman HL, Greenspon A , et al; Philadelphia Arrhythmia Group. Value of electrophysiologic testing in patients with previous myocardial infarction and nonsustained ventricular tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 1990; 65 (9) 594-598
- 194 Poll DS, Marchlinski FE, Buxton AE, Josephson ME. Usefulness of programmed stimulation in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1986; 58 (10) 992-997
- 195 Shabetai R. Sarcoidosis and the heart. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med 2000; 2 (5) 385-398
- 196 Stein E, Jackler I, Stimmel B, Stein W, Siltzbach LE. Asymptomatic electrocardiographic alterations in sarcoidosis. Am Heart J 1973; 86 (4) 474-477
- 197 Takada K, Ina Y, Yamamoto M, Satoh T, Morishita M. Prognosis after pacemaker implantation in cardiac sarcoidosis in Japan. Clinical evaluation of corticosteroid therapy. Sarcoidosis 1994; 11 (2) 113-117
- 198 Paz HL, McCormick DJ, Kutalek SP, Patchefsky A. The automated implantable cardiac defibrillator. Prophylaxis in cardiac sarcoidosis. Chest 1994; 106 (5) 1603-1607
- 199 Betensky BP, Tschabrunn CM, Zado ES , et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with cardiac sarcoidosis and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators. Heart Rhythm 2012; 9 (6) 884-891
- 200 Chinushi M, Mezaki T, Aoki Y, Nakagawa I, Washizuka T, Aizawa Y. Demonstration of transient entrainment in monomorphic sustained ventricular tachycardia associated with cardiac sarcoidosis. Jpn Circ J 2000; 64 (8) 635-637
- 201 Epstein AE, DiMarco JP, Ellenbogen KA , et al; American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 Guideline Update for Implantation of Cardiac Pacemakers and Antiarrhythmia Devices); American Association for Thoracic Surgery; Society of Thoracic Surgeons. ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 Guidelines for Device-Based Therapy of Cardiac Rhythm Abnormalities: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 Guideline Update for Implantation of Cardiac Pacemakers and Antiarrhythmia Devices) developed in collaboration with the American Association for Thoracic Surgery and Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 51 (21) e1-e62
- 202 Kron J, Sauer W, Schuller J , et al. Efficacy and safety of implantable cardiac defibrillators for treatment of ventricular arrhythmias in patients with cardiac sarcoidosis. Europace 2013; 15 (3) 347-354
- 203 Koplan BA, Soejima K, Baughman K, Epstein LM, Stevenson WG. Refractory ventricular tachycardia secondary to cardiac sarcoid: electrophysiologic characteristics, mapping, and ablation. Heart Rhythm 2006; 3 (8) 924-929
- 204 Jefic D, Joel B, Good E , et al. Role of radiofrequency catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in cardiac sarcoidosis: report from a multicenter registry. Heart Rhythm 2009; 6 (2) 189-195
- 205 Harris IM, Guarino R. Cardiac sarcoidosis: a new approach to treatment. Cardiovasc Surg 1994; 2 (3) 420-422
- 206 Chang TI, Chi NH, Chou NK , et al. Isolated cardiac sarcoidosis in heart transplantation. Transplant Proc 2012; 44 (4) 903-906
- 207 Perkel D, Czer LS, Morrissey RP , et al. Heart transplantation for end-stage heart failure due to cardiac sarcoidosis. Transplant Proc 2013; 45 (6) 2384-2386
- 208 Milman N, Andersen CB, Mortensen SA, Sander K. Cardiac sarcoidosis and heart transplantation: a report of four consecutive patients. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis 2008; 25 (1) 51-59
- 209 Akashi H, Kato TS, Takayama H , et al. Outcome of patients with cardiac sarcoidosis undergoing cardiac transplantation—single-center retrospective analysis. J Cardiol 2012; 60 (5) 407-410
- 210 Donsky AS, Escobar J, Capehart J, Roberts WC. Heart transplantation for undiagnosed cardiac sarcoidosis. Am J Cardiol 2002; 89 (12) 1447-1450
- 211 Zaidi AR, Zaidi A, Vaitkus PT. Outcome of heart transplantation in patients with sarcoid cardiomyopathy. J Heart Lung Transplant 2007; 26 (7) 714-717
- 212 Oni AA, Hershberger RE, Norman DJ , et al. Recurrence of sarcoidosis in a cardiac allograft: control with augmented corticosteroids. J Heart Lung Transplant 1992; 11 (2 Pt 1) 367-369
- 213 Khan R, Tweedie EJ, Pflugfelder PW, White JA. Cardiac sarcoid in a heart transplant recipient: detection with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Transplant Proc 2010; 42 (5) 1976-1978
- 214 Luk A, Lee A, Ahn E, Soor GS, Ross HJ, Butany J. Cardiac sarcoidosis: recurrent disease in a heart transplant patient following pulmonary tuberculosis infection. Can J Cardiol 2010; 26 (7) e273-e275
- 215 Yager JE, Hernandez AF, Steenbergen C , et al. Recurrence of cardiac sarcoidosis in a heart transplant recipient. J Heart Lung Transplant 2005; 24 (11) 1988-1990
- 216 Langah R, Spicer K, Gebregziabher M, Gordon L. Effectiveness of prolonged fasting 18f-FDG PET-CT in the detection of cardiac sarcoidosis. J Nucl Cardiol 2009; 16 (5) 801-810