Download PDF
Semin Hear 2015; 36(03): 175-196
DOI: 10.1055/s-0035-1555120
Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Aging of the Human Vestibular System

Christopher K. Zalewski
1   Otolaryngology Branch, Audiology Unit, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland
› Author Affiliations
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
09 July 2015 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Aging affects every sensory system in the body, including the vestibular system. Although its impact is often difficult to quantify, the deleterious impact of aging on the vestibular system is serious both medically and economically. The deterioration of the vestibular sensory end organs has been known since the 1970s; however, the measurable impact from these anatomical changes remains elusive. Tests of vestibular function either fall short in their ability to quantify such anatomical deterioration, or they are insensitive to the associated physiologic decline and/or central compensatory mechanisms that accompany the vestibular aging process. When compared with healthy younger individuals, a paucity of subtle differences in test results has been reported in the healthy older population, and those differences are often observed only in response to nontraditional and/or more robust stimuli. In addition, the reported differences are often clinically insignificant insomuch that the recorded physiologic responses from the elderly often fall within the wide normative response ranges identified for normal healthy adults. The damaging economic impact of such vestibular sensory decline manifests itself in an exponential increase in geriatric dizziness and a subsequent higher prevalence of injurious falls. An estimated $10 to $20 billion dollar annual cost has been reported to be associated with falls-related injuries and is the sixth leading cause of death in the elderly population, with a 20% mortality rate. With an estimated 115% increase in the geriatric population over 65 years of age by the year 2050, the number of balanced-disordered patients with a declining vestibular system is certain to reach near epidemic proportions. An understanding of the effects of age on the vestibular system is imperative if clinicians are to better manage elderly patients with balance disorders, dizziness, and vestibular disease.

Keywords

Vestibular - aging - presbystasis - presbyvertigo - presbyequilibrium - geriatric dizziness
 

  • References

  • 1 Horak F. Role of the Vestibular System in Postural Control. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company; 2008
    Google Scholar
  • 2 Keshner E. Postural Abnormalities in vestibular Disorders. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company; 2007
    Google Scholar
  • 3 Peterka RJ. Sensorimotor integration in human postural control. J Neurophysiol 2002; 88 (3) 1097-1118
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Marchetti GF, Whitney SL. Older adults and balance dysfunction. Neurol Clin 2005; 23 (3) 785-805 , vii
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Shoair OA, Nyandege AN, Slattum PW. Medication-related dizziness in the older adult. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2011; 44 (2) 455-471 , x
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Dewane JA. Dealing with dizziness and disequilibrium in older patients: a clinical approach. Topics in Geriatric Rehabilitation 1995; 11 (1) 30-38
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Cutson TM. Falls in the elderly. Am Fam Physician 1994; 49 (1) 149-156
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Hobeika CP. Equilibrium and balance in the elderly. Ear Nose Throat J 1999; 78 (8) 558-562 , 565–566
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Dillon CF, Gu Q, Hoffman HJ, Ko CW. Vision, hearing, balance, and sensory impairment in Americans aged 70 years and over: United States, 1999–2006. NCHS Data Brief 2010; 31: 1-8
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Katsarkas A. Dizziness in aging: a retrospective study of 1194 cases. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1994; 110 (3) 296-301
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Baloh RW. Vestibular and auditory disorders. Curr Opin Neurol 1996; 9 (1) 32-36
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 NIH. National Institutes of Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD); 1997: 122
  • 13 University of Iowa Health Care. Comprehensive management of vestibular disorders. Currents 2002; 3 (2)
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Jacobson GP, McCaslin DL, Grantham SL, Piker EG. Significant vestibular system impairment is common in a cohort of elderly patients referred for assessment of falls risk. J Am Acad Audiol 2008; 19 (10) 799-807
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Kippenbrock T, Soja ME. Preventing falls in the elderly: Interviewing patients who have fallen. Researchers attempt to identify fall-risk factors from the patients' point of view. Geriatr Nurs (Minneap) 1993; 14 (4) 205-209
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Ambrose AF, Paul G, Hausdorff JM. Risk factors for falls among older adults: A review of the literature. Maturitas 2013; 75 (1) 51-61
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Todd CJ, Freeman CJ, Camilleri-Ferrante C , et al. Differences in mortality after fracture of hip: The east anglian audit. BMJ 1995; 310 (6984) 904-908
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Windmill IM, Freeman BA. Demand for audiology services: 30-yr projections and impact on academic programs. J Am Acad Audiol 2013; 24 (5) 407-416
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Matheson AJ, Darlington CL, Smith PF. Dizziness in the elderly and age-related degeneration of the vestibular system. N Z J Psychol 1999; 28 (1) 10-16
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Rosenhall U. Degenerative patterns in the aging human vestibular neuro-epithelia. Acta Otolaryngol 1973; 76 (2) 208-220
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Anniko M. The aging vestibular hair cell. Am J Otolaryngol 1983; 4 (3) 151-160
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Campos A, Canizares FJ, Sanchez-Quevedo MC, Romero PJ. Otoconial degeneration in the aged utricle and saccule. Adv Otorhinolaryngol 1990; 45: 143-153
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Furman JM, Redfern MS. Effect of aging on the otolith-ocular reflex. J Vestib Resl 2001; 11 (2) 91-103
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Lim DJ. Otoconia in health and disease. A review. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol Suppl 1984; 112: 17-24
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Maes L, Dhooge I, D'Haenens W , et al. The effect of age on the sinusoidal harmonic acceleration test, pseudorandom rotation test, velocity step test, caloric test, and vestibular-evoked myogenic potential test. Ear Hear 2010; 31 (1) 84-94
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Walther LE, Westhofen M. Presbyvertigo-aging of otoconia and vestibular sensory cells. Journal of vestibular research: equilibrium & orientation 2007; 17 (2–3) 89-92
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Rauch SD, Velazquez-Villasenor L, Dimitri PS, Merchant SN. Decreasing hair cell counts in aging humans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001; 942: 220-227
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Baloh RW, Jacobson KM, Socotch TM. The effect of aging on visual-vestibuloocular responses. Exp Brain Res 1993; 95 (3) 509-516
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Jang YS, Hwang CH, Shin JY, Bae WY, Kim LS. Age-related changes on the morphology of the otoconia. Laryngoscope 2006; 116 (6) 996-1001
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Matheson AJ, Darlington CL, Smith PF. Further evidence for age-related deficits in human postural function. J Vestib Res 1999; 9 (4) 261-264
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Rosenhall U, Rubin W. Degenerative changes in the human vestibular sensory epithelia. Acta Otolaryngol 1975; 79 (1–2) 67-80
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Richter E. Quantitative study of human scarpa's ganglion and vestibular sensory epithelia. Acta Otolaryngol 1980; 90 (3–4) 199-208
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Bergstrom B. Morphology of the vestibular nerve. I. Anatomical studies of the vestibular nerve in man. Acta Otolaryngol 1973; 76 (2) 162-172
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Bergstrom B. Morphology of the vestibular nerve. Ii. The number of myelinated vestibular nerve fibers in man at various ages. Acta Otolaryngol 1973; 76 (2) 173-179
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Lopez I, Honrubia V, Baloh RW. Aging and the human vestibular nucleus. J Vestib Res 1997; 7 (1) 77-85
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Alvarez JC, Diaz C, Suarez C , et al. Neuronal loss in human medial vestibular nucleus. Anat Rec 1998; 251 (4) 431-438
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Merchant SN, Velazquez-Villasenor L, Tsuji K, Glynn RJ, Wall III C, Rauch SD. Temporal bone studies of the human peripheral vestibular system. Normative vestibular hair cell data. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol Suppl 2000; 181: 3-13
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Velazquez-Villasenor L, Merchant SN, Tsuji K, Glynn RJ, Wall III C, Rauch SD. Temporal bone studies of the human peripheral vestibular system. Normative scarpa's ganglion cell data. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol Suppl 2000; 181: 14-19
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Engstrom H, Bergstrom B, Rosenhall U. Vestibular sensory epithelia. Arch Otolaryngol 1974; 100 (6) 411-418
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Igarashi M, Saito R, Mizukoshi K, Alford BR. Otoconia in young and elderly persons: A temporal bone study. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1993; 504: 26-29
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Johnsson LG. Degenerative changes and anomalies of the vestibular system in man. Laryngoscope 1971; 81 (10) 1682-1694
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Johnsson LG, Hawkins Jr JE. Otolithic membranes of the saccule and utricle in man. Science 1967; 157 (3795) 1454-1456
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Johnsson LG, Hawkins Jr JE. Vascular changes in the human inner ear associated with aging. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1972; 81 (3) 364-376
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Thalmann R, Ignatova E, Kachar B, Ornitz DM, Thalmann I. Development and maintenance of otoconia: Biochemical considerations. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001; 942: 162-178
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Baloh RW, Honrubia V. Clinical neurophysiology of the vestibular system. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company; 2001
    Google Scholar
  • 46 Gretsy MA, Lempert T. Pathophysiology and clinical testing of otolith dysfunction. New York, NY: Karger; 2001
    Google Scholar
  • 47 Leigh RJ, Zee DS. The neurology of eye movements. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2006
    Google Scholar
  • 48 Minor LB, Goldberg JM. Vestibular-nerve inputs to the vestibulo-ocular reflex: A functional-ablation study in the squirrel monkey. J Neurosci 1991; 11 (6) 1636-1648
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Tang PF, Woollacott M. Balance control in older adults. In: Bronstein AM, Brandt TW, , M., Nutt J. , eds. Clinical disorders of balance, posture and gait. 2nd ed. London: Arnold; 2004: 385-403
    Google Scholar
  • 50 Jacobson GP, McCaslin DL, Patel S, Barin K, Ramadan NM. Functional and anatomical correlates of impaired velocity storage. J Am Acad Audiol 2004; 15 (4) 324-333
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Mulch G, Petermann W. Influence of age on results of vestibular function tests. Review of literature and presentation of caloric test results. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol Suppl 1979; 88 (2 Pt 2 Suppl 56) 1-17
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Calder JH. Aging and the balance control systems. In: Weinstein BE, , ed. Geriatric audiology. New York, NY: Thieme; 2000: 141-167
    Google Scholar
  • 53 Lynch SJ, Nayak US, Isaacs B. Positional and optokinetic nystagmus in healthy old people. Age Ageing 1985; 14 (2) 122-124
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Kerber KA, Ishiyama GP, Baloh RW. A longitudinal study of oculomotor function in normal older people. Neurobiol Aging 2006; 27 (9) 1346-1353
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Irving EL, Steinbach MJ, Lillakas L, Babu RJ, Hutchings N. Horizontal saccade dynamics across the human life span. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006; 47 (6) 2478-2484
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Peltsch A, Hemraj A, Garcia A, Munoz DP. Age-related trends in saccade characteristics among the elderly. Neurobiol Aging 2011; 32 (4) 669-679
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Tuunainen E, Poe D, Jantti P , et al. Presbyequilibrium in the oldest old, a combination of vestibular, oculomotor and postural deficits. Aging Clin Exp Res 2011; 23 (5–6) 364-371
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Sharpe JA, Sylvester TO. Effect of aging on horizontal smooth pursuit. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1978; 17 (5) 465-468
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Spooner JW, Sakala SM, Baloh RW. Effect of aging on eye tracking. Arch Neurol 1980; 37 (9) 575-576
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Jagacinski RJ, Liao MJ, Fayyad EA. Generalized slowing in sinusoidal tracking by older adults. Psychol Aging 1995; 10 (1) 8-19
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Morrow MJ, Sharpe JA. Smooth pursuit initiation in young and elderly subjects. Vision Res 1993; 33 (2) 203-210
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Kanayama R, Nakamura T, Sano R , et al. Effect of aging on smooth pursuit eye movement. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1994; 511: 131-134
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Kato I, Sakuma A, Ogino S, Takahashi K, Okada T. Aging effects upon pursuit eye movements. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1995; 520 ((Pt 2):) 293-294
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Simons B, Buttner U. The influence of age on optokinetic nystagmus. Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol Sci 1985; 234 (6) 369-373
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Farooq SJ, Gottlob I, Benskin S, Proudlock FA. The effect of aging on torsional optokinetic nystagmus. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49 (2) 589-593
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Zackon DH, Sharpe JA. Smooth pursuit in senescence. Effects of target acceleration and velocity. Acta Otolaryngol 1987; 104 (3–4) 290-297
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Demer JL. Effect of aging on vertical visual tracking and visual-vestibular interaction. J Vestib Res 1994; 4 (5) 355-370
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Sharpe JA, Zackon DH. Senescent saccades. Effects of aging on their accuracy, latency and velocity. Acta Otolaryngol 1987; 104 (5–6) 422-428
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Pitt MC, Rawles JM. The value of measuring saccadic eye movement in the investigation of non-compressive myelopathy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52 (10) 1157-1161
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Paige GD. The aging vestibulo-ocular reflex (vor) and adaptive plasticity. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1991; 481: 297-300
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Paige GD. Senescence of human visual-vestibular interactions. 1. Vestibulo-ocular reflex and adaptive plasticity with aging. J Vestib Res 1992; 2 (2) 133-151
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Hajioff D, Barr-Hamilton RM, Colledge NR, Lewis SJ, Wilson JA. Re-evaluation of normative electronystagmography data in healthy ageing. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 2000; 25 (4) 249-252
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Bruner A, Norris TW. Age-related changes in caloric nystagmus. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1971; 282: 1-24
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 van der Laan FL, Oosterveld WJ. Age and vestibular function. Aerosp Med 1974; 45 (5) 540-547
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Clement PA, Van der Laan FL, Oosterveld WJ. The influence of age on vestibular function. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Belg 1975; 29 (1) 163-172
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Karlsen EA, Hassanein RM, Goetzinger CP. The effects of age, sex, hearing loss and water temperature on caloric nystagmus. Laryngoscope 1981; 91 (4) 620-627
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Ghosh P. Aging and auditory vestibular response. Ear Nose Throat 1985; 64 (5) 264-266
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Jacobson GP, Henry KG. Effect of temperature on fixation suppression ability in normal subjects: The need for temperature- and age-dependent normal values. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1989; 98 (5 Pt 1): 369-372
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Peterka RJ, Black FO, Schoenhoff MB. Age-related changes in human vestibulo-ocular reflexes: Sinusoidal rotation and caloric tests. J Vestib Res 1990; 1 (1) 49-59
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Mallinson AI, Longridge NS. Caloric response does not decline with age. J Vestib Res 2004; 14 (5) 393-396
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Davidson J, Wright G, McIlmoyl L, Canter RJ, Barber HO. The reproducibility of caloric tests of vestibular function in young and old subjects. Acta Otolaryngol 1988; 106 (3–4) 264-268
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Wall III C, Black FO. Intersubject variability in vor responses to 0.005–1.0 hz sinusoidal rotations. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1984; 406: 194-198
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Wall III C, Black FO, Hunt AE. Effects of age, sex and stimulus parameters upon vestibulo-ocular responses to sinusoidal rotation. Acta Otolaryngol 1984; 98 (3–4) 270-278
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Enrietto JA, Jacobson KM, Baloh RW. Aging effects on auditory and vestibular responses: A longitudinal study. Am J Otolaryngol 1999; 20 (6) 371-378
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Tian JR, Crane BT, Wiest G, Demer JL. Effect of aging on the human initial interaural linear vestibulo-ocular reflex. Exp Brain Res 2002; 145 (2) 142-149
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Serrador JM, Lipsitz LA, Gopalakrishnan GS, Black FO, Wood SJ. Loss of otolith function with age is associated with increased postural sway measures. Neurosci Lett 2009; 465 (1) 10-15
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Maki BE, Holliday PJ, Topper AK. A prospective study of postural balance and risk of falling in an ambulatory and independent elderly population. J Gerontol 1994; 49 (2) M72-M84
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Chang NY, Hiss MM, Sanders MC , et al. Vestibular perception and the vestibulo-ocular reflex in young and older adults. Ear Hear 2014; 35 (5) 565-570
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Roditi RE, Crane BT. Suprathreshold asymmetries in human motion perception. Exp Brain Res 2012; 219 (3) 369-379
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Roditi RE, Crane BT. Directional asymmetries and age effects in human self-motion perception. Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology: JARO. 2012; 13 (3) 381-401
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Akin FW, Murnane OD, Tampas JW, Clinard CG. The effect of age on the vestibular evoked myogenic potential and sternocleidomastoid muscle tonic electromyogram level. Ear Hear 2011; 32 (5) 617-622
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Brantberg K, Granath K, Schart N. Age-related changes in vestibular evoked myogenic potentials. Audiol Neurootol 2007; 12 (4) 247-253
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Lee SK, Cha CI, Jung TS, Park DC, Yeo SG. Age-related differences in parameters of vestibular evoked myogenic potentials. Acta Otolaryngol 2008; 128 (1) 66-72
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Su HC, Huang TW, Young YH, Cheng PW. Aging effect on vestibular evoked myogenic potential. Otology & neurotology: official publication of the American Otological Society, American Neurotology Society. [and] European Academy of Otology and Neurotology 2004; 25 (6) 977-980
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Welgampola MS, Colebatch JG. Vestibulocollic reflexes: Normal values and the effect of age. Clinical neurophysiology: official journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. 2001; 112 (11) 1971-1979
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Zapala DA, Brey RH. Clinical experience with the vestibular evoked myogenic potential. J Am Acad Audiol 2004; 15 (3) 198-215
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Janky KL, Shepard N. Vestibular evoked myogenic potential (vemp) testing: Normative threshold response curves and effects of age. J Am Acad Audiol 2009; 20 (8) 514-522
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Agrawal Y, Zuniga MG, Davalos-Bichara M , et al. Decline in semicircular canal and otolith function with age. Otology & neurotology: official publication of the American Otological Society, American Neurotology Society. [and] European Academy of Otology and Neurotology 2012; 33 (5) 832-839
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Iwasaki S, Smulders YE, Burgess AM , et al. Ocular vestibular evoked myogenic potentials to bone conducted vibration of the midline forehead at fz in healthy subjects. Clinical neurophysiology: official journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. 2008; 119 (9) 2135-2147
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Rosengren SM, Govender S, Colebatch JG. Ocular and cervical vestibular evoked myogenic potentials produced by air- and bone-conducted stimuli: Comparative properties and effects of age. Clinical neurophysiology: official journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. 2011; 122 (11) 2282-2289
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Piker EG, Jacobson GP, McCaslin DL, Hood LJ. Normal characteristics of the ocular vestibular evoked myogenic potential. J Am Acad Audiol 2011; 22 (4) 222-230
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Nguyen KD, Welgampola MS, Carey JP. Test-retest reliability and age-related characteristics of the ocular and cervical vestibular evoked myogenic potential tests. Otol Neurotol 2010; 31 (5) 793-802
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Tseng CL, Chou CH, Young YH. Aging effect on the ocular vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials. Otol Neurotol 2010; 31 (6) 959-963
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Piker EG, Jacobson GP, Burkard RF, McCaslin DL, Hood LJ. Effects of age on the tuning of the cvemp and ovemp. Ear Hear 2013; 34 (6) e65-e73
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Chamberlain W. Restriction in upward gaze with advancing age. Am J Ophthalmol 1971; 71 (1 Pt 2): 341-346
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Agrawal Y, Schubert MC, Migliaccio AA , et al. Evaluation of quantitative head impulse testing using search coils versus video-oculography in older individuals. Otol Neurotol 2014; 35 (2) 283-288
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Davalos-Bichara M, Agrawal Y. Normative results of healthy older adults on standard clinical vestibular tests. Otol Neurotol 2014; 35 (2) 297-300
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Matino-Soler E, Esteller-More E, Martin-Sanchez JC, Martinez-Sanchez JM, Perez-Fernandez N. Normative data on angular vestibulo-ocular responses in the yaw axis measured using the video head impulse test. Otology & neurotology: official publication of the American Otological Society, American Neurotology Society [and] European Academy of Otology and Neurotology. 2014
    Google Scholar
  • 109 Li C, Layman AJ, Geary R , et al. Epidemiology of vestibulo-ocular reflex function: Data from the baltimore longitudinal study of aging. Otology & neurotology: official publication of the American Otological Society, American Neurotology Society [and] European Academy of Otology and Neurotology. 2014
    Google Scholar
  • 110 McCaslin DL, Jacobson GP, Bennett ML, Gruenwald JM, Green AP. Predictive properties of the video head impulse test: Measures of caloric symmetry and self-report dizziness handicap. Ear Hear 2014; 35 (5) e185-e191
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Hirvonen TP, Aalto H, Pyykko I, Juhola M, Jantti P. Changes in vestibulo-ocular reflex of elderly people. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1997; 529: 108-110
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Hsieh LC, Lin HC, Lee GS. Aging of vestibular function evaluated using correlational vestibular autorotation test. Clin Interv Aging 2014; 9: 1463-1469
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Guyot JP, Psillas G. Test-retest reliability of vestibular autorotation testing in healthy subjects. Otolaryngology–head and neck surgery: official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-. Head Neck Surg 1997; 117 (6) 704-707
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Blatt PJ, Schubert MC, Roach KE, Tusa RJ. The reliability of the vestibular autorotation test (vat) in patients with dizziness. J Neurol Phys Ther 2008; 32 (2) 70-79
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Li CW, Hooper RE, Cousins VC. Sinusoidal harmonic acceleration testing in normal humans. Laryngoscope 1991; 101 (2) 192-196
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Stefansson S, Imoto T. Age-related changes in optokinetic and rotational tests. Am J Otol 1986; 7 (3) 193-196
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 DiZio P, Lackner JR. Age differences in oculomotor responses to step changes in body velocity and visual surround velocity. J Gerontol 1990; 45 (3) M89-M94
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Zapala DA, Olsholt KF, Lundy LB. A comparison of water and air caloric responses and their ability to distinguish between patients with normal and impaired ears. Ear Hear 2008; 29 (4) 585-600
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Ochi K, Ohashi T. Age-related changes in the vestibular-evoked myogenic potentials. Otolaryngology–head and neck surgery: official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-. Head Neck Surg 2003; 129 (6) 655-659
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 Basta D, Todt I, Ernst A. Normative data for p1/n1-latencies of vestibular evoked myogenic potentials induced by air- or bone-conducted tone bursts. Clinical neurophysiology: official journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology 2005; 116 (9) 2216-2219
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 121 Basta D, Todt I, Ernst A. Characterization of age-related changes in vestibular evoked myogenic potentials. J Vestib Res 2007; 17 (2–3) 93-98
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 122 Tinetti ME, Williams CS, Gill TM. Dizziness among older adults: A possible geriatric syndrome. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132 (5) 337-344
    PubMedGoogle Scholar