Metastatic Liver Disease: Indications for Locoregional Therapy and Supporting Data

Abstract

Metastatic liver disease is a major cause of cancer-related morbidity and mortality. Surgical resection is considered the only curative treatment, yet only a minority is eligible. Patients who present with unresectable disease are treated with systemic agents and/or locoregional therapies. The latter include thermal ablation and catheter-based transarterial interventions. Thermal ablation is reserved for those with limited tumor burden. It is used to downstage the disease to enable curative surgical resection, as an adjunct to surgery, or in select patients it is potentially curative. Transarterial therapies are indicated in those with more diffuse disease. The goals of care are to palliate symptoms and prolong survival. The indications and supporting data for thermal ablation and transarterial interventions are reviewed, technical and tumor factors that need to be considered prior to intervention are outlined, and finally several cases are presented.

Keywords

interventional radiology - liver metastases - locoregional therapy - thermal ablation - radioembolization - chemoembolization

• References

• 1 Namasivayam S, Martin DR, Saini S. Imaging of liver metastases: MRI. Cancer Imaging 2007; 7: 2-9
• 2 Robinson PJ. Imaging liver metastases: current limitations and future prospects. Br J Radiol 2000; 73 (867) 234-241
• 3 Jemal A, Murray T, Ward E. , et al. Cancer statistics, 2005. CA Cancer J Clin 2005; 55 (01) 10-30
• 4 Forner A, Llovet JM, Bruix J. Hepatocellular carcinoma. Lancet 2012; 379 (9822): 1245-1255
• 5 Brace CL. Microwave tissue ablation: biophysics, technology, and applications. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 2010; 38 (01) 65-78
• 6 Lammer J, Malagari K, Vogl T. , et al; PRECISION V Investigators. Prospective randomized study of doxorubicin-eluting-bead embolization in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: results of the PRECISION V study. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2010; 33 (01) 41-52
• 7 Steward BW, Kleihues P. , eds. Colorectal Cancer. World Cancer Report. IACR Press; 2003: 198-202
• 8 Choti MA, Sitzmann JV, Tiburi MF. , et al. Trends in long-term survival following liver resection for hepatic colorectal metastases. Ann Surg 2002; 235 (06) 759-766
• 9 Kornprat P, Jarnagin WR, Gonen M. , et al. Outcome after hepatectomy for multiple (four or more) colorectal metastases in the era of effective chemotherapy. Ann Surg Oncol 2007; 14 (03) 1151-1160
• 10 Douillard JY, Cunningham D, Roth AD. , et al. Irinotecan combined with fluorouracil compared with fluorouracil alone as first-line treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer: a multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 2000; 355 (9209): 1041-1047
• 11 de Gramont A, Figer A, Seymour M. , et al. Leucovorin and fluorouracil with or without oxaliplatin as first-line treatment in advanced colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 2000; 18 (16) 2938-2947
• 12 Saltz LB, Cox JV, Blanke C. , et al; Irinotecan Study Group. Irinotecan plus fluorouracil and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2000; 343 (13) 905-914
• 13 Kabbinavar F, Hurwitz HI, Fehrenbacher L. , et al. Phase II, randomized trial comparing bevacizumab plus fluorouracil (FU)/leucovorin (LV) with FU/LV alone in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 2003; 21 (01) 60-65
• 14 Tournigand C, André T, Achille E. , et al. FOLFIRI followed by FOLFOX6 or the reverse sequence in advanced colorectal cancer: a randomized GERCOR study. J Clin Oncol 2004; 22 (02) 229-237
• 15 Hurwitz H, Fehrenbacher L, Novotny W. , et al. Bevacizumab plus irinotecan, fluorouracil, and leucovorin for metastatic colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2004; 350 (23) 2335-2342
• 16 Goldberg RM, Sargent DJ, Morton RF. , et al. Randomized controlled trial of reduced-dose bolus fluorouracil plus leucovorin and irinotecan or infused fluorouracil plus leucovorin and oxaliplatin in patients with previously untreated metastatic colorectal cancer: a North American Intergroup Trial. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24 (21) 3347-3353
• 17 Saltz LB, Clarke S, Díaz-Rubio E. , et al. Bevacizumab in combination with oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy as first-line therapy in metastatic colorectal cancer: a randomized phase III study. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26 (12) 2013-2019
• 18 Hamada A, Yamakado K, Nakatsuka A. , et al. Radiofrequency ablation for colorectal liver metastases: prognostic factors in non-surgical candidates. Jpn J Radiol 2012; 30 (07) 567-574
• 19 Jakobs TF, Hoffmann RT, Trumm C, Reiser MF, Helmberger TK. Radiofrequency ablation of colorectal liver metastases: mid-term results in 68 patients. Anticancer Res 2006; 26 (1B): 671-680
• 20 Solbiati L, Ahmed M, Cova L, Ierace T, Brioschi M, Goldberg SN. Small liver colorectal metastases treated with percutaneous radiofrequency ablation: local response rate and long-term survival with up to 10-year follow-up. Radiology 2012; 265 (03) 958-968
• 21 Veltri A, Sacchetto P, Tosetti I, Pagano E, Fava C, Gandini G. Radiofrequency ablation of colorectal liver metastases: small size favorably predicts technique effectiveness and survival. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2008; 31 (05) 948-956
• 22 de Liguori Carino N, van Leeuwen BL, Ghaneh P, Wu A, Audisio RA, Poston GJ. Liver resection for colorectal liver metastases in older patients. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2008; 67 (03) 273-278
• 23 Solbiati L, Livraghi T, Goldberg SN. , et al. Percutaneous radio-frequency ablation of hepatic metastases from colorectal cancer: long-term results in 117 patients. Radiology 2001; 221 (01) 159-166
• 24 de Baere T, Elias D, Dromain C. , et al. Radiofrequency ablation of 100 hepatic metastases with a mean follow-up of more than 1 year. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2000; 175 (06) 1619-1625
• 25 Solbiati L, Goldberg SN, Ierace T. , et al. Hepatic metastases: percutaneous radio-frequency ablation with cooled-tip electrodes. Radiology 1997; 205 (02) 367-373
• 26 White TJ, Roy-Choudhury SH, Breen DJ. , et al. Percutaneous radiofrequency ablation of colorectal hepatic metastases - initial experience. An adjunct technique to systemic chemotherapy for those with inoperable colorectal hepatic metastases. Dig Surg 2004; 21 (04) 314-320
• 27 Abdalla EK, Vauthey JN, Ellis LM. , et al. Recurrence and outcomes following hepatic resection, radiofrequency ablation, and combined resection/ablation for colorectal liver metastases. Ann Surg 2004; 239 (06) 818-825 , discussion 825–827
• 28 Bleicher RJ, Allegra DP, Nora DT, Wood TF, Foshag LJ, Bilchik AJ. Radiofrequency ablation in 447 complex unresectable liver tumors: lessons learned. Ann Surg Oncol 2003; 10 (01) 52-58
• 29 Oshowo A, Gillams A, Harrison E, Lees WR, Taylor I. Comparison of resection and radiofrequency ablation for treatment of solitary colorectal liver metastases. Br J Surg 2003; 90 (10) 1240-1243
• 30 Gillams AR, Lees WR. Radiofrequency ablation of colorectal liver metastases. Abdom Imaging 2005; 30 (04) 419-426
• 31 Joosten J, Jager G, Oyen W, Wobbes T, Ruers T. Cryosurgery and radiofrequency ablation for unresectable colorectal liver metastases. Eur J Surg Oncol 2005; 31 (10) 1152-1159
• 32 Gillams A, Goldberg N, Ahmed M. , et al. Thermal ablation of colorectal liver metastases: a position paper by an international panel of ablation experts, The Interventional Oncology Sans Frontières meeting 2013. Eur Radiol 2015; 25 (12) 3438-3454
• 33 Ko S, Jo H, Yun S, Park E, Kim S, Seo HI. Comparative analysis of radiofrequency ablation and resection for resectable colorectal liver metastases. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20 (02) 525-531
• 34 Shibata T, Niinobu T, Ogata N, Takami M. Microwave coagulation therapy for multiple hepatic metastases from colorectal carcinoma. Cancer 2000; 89 (02) 276-284
• 35 Ruers T, Punt C, Van Coevorden F. , et al; EORTC Gastro-Intestinal Tract Cancer Group, Arbeitsgruppe Lebermetastasen und—tumoren in der Chirurgischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft Onkologie (ALM-CAO) and the National Cancer Research Institute Colorectal Clinical Study Group (NCRI CCSG). Radiofrequency ablation combined with systemic treatment versus systemic treatment alone in patients with non-resectable colorectal liver metastases: a randomized EORTC Intergroup phase II study (EORTC 40004). Ann Oncol 2012; 23 (10) 2619-2626
• 36 Livraghi T, Solbiati L, Meloni F, Ierace T, Goldberg SN, Gazelle GS. Percutaneous radiofrequency ablation of liver metastases in potential candidates for resection: the “test-of-time approach”. Cancer 2003; 97 (12) 3027-3035
• 37 Pamecha V, Glantzounis G, Davies N, Fusai G, Sharma D, Davidson B. Long-term survival and disease recurrence following portal vein embolisation prior to major hepatectomy for colorectal metastases. Ann Surg Oncol 2009; 16 (05) 1202-1207
• 38 Viganò L, Capussotti L, Lapointe R. , et al. Early recurrence after liver resection for colorectal metastases: risk factors, prognosis, and treatment. A LiverMetSurvey-based study of 6,025 patients. Ann Surg Oncol 2014; 21 (04) 1276-1286
• 39 Xing M, Kooby DA, El-Rayes BF, Kokabi N, Camacho JC, Kim HS. Locoregional therapies for metastatic colorectal carcinoma to the liver--an evidence-based review. J Surg Oncol 2014; 110 (02) 182-196
• 40 Vogl TJ, Gruber T, Balzer JO, Eichler K, Hammerstingl R, Zangos S. Repeated transarterial chemoembolization in the treatment of liver metastases of colorectal cancer: prospective study. Radiology 2009; 250 (01) 281-289
• 41 Albert M, Kiefer MV, Sun W. , et al. Chemoembolization of colorectal liver metastases with cisplatin, doxorubicin, mitomycin C, Ethiodol, and polyvinyl alcohol. Cancer 2011; 117 (02) 343-352
• 42 Hong K, McBride JD, Georgiades CS. , et al. Salvage therapy for liver-dominant colorectal metastatic adenocarcinoma: comparison between transcatheter arterial chemoembolization versus yttrium-90 radioembolization. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2009; 20 (03) 360-367
• 43 Sanz-Altamira PM, Spence LD, Huberman MS. , et al. Selective chemoembolization in the management of hepatic metastases in refractory colorectal carcinoma: a phase II trial. Dis Colon Rectum 1997; 40 (07) 770-775
• 44 Tellez C, Benson III AB, Lyster MT. , et al. Phase II trial of chemoembolization for the treatment of metastatic colorectal carcinoma to the liver and review of the literature. Cancer 1998; 82 (07) 1250-1259
• 45 Martin II RC, Scoggins CR, Schreeder M. , et al. Randomized controlled trial of irinotecan drug-eluting beads with simultaneous FOLFOX and bevacizumab for patients with unresectable colorectal liver-limited metastasis. Cancer 2015; 121 (20) 3649-3658
• 46 Bower M, Metzger T, Robbins K. , et al. Surgical downstaging and neo-adjuvant therapy in metastatic colorectal carcinoma with irinotecan drug-eluting beads: a multi-institutional study. HPB (Oxford) 2010; 12 (01) 31-36
• 47 Fiorentini G, Aliberti C, Tilli M. , et al. Intra-arterial infusion of irinotecan-loaded drug-eluting beads (DEBIRI) versus intravenous therapy (FOLFIRI) for hepatic metastases from colorectal cancer: final results of a phase III study. Anticancer Res 2012; 32 (04) 1387-1395
• 48 Martin RC, Joshi J, Robbins K. , et al. Hepatic intra-arterial injection of drug-eluting bead, irinotecan (DEBIRI) in unresectable colorectal liver metastases refractory to systemic chemotherapy: results of multi-institutional study. Ann Surg Oncol 2011; 18 (01) 192-198
• 49 Richardson AJ, Laurence JM, Lam VW. Transarterial chemoembolization with irinotecan beads in the treatment of colorectal liver metastases: systematic review. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2013; 24 (08) 1209-1217
• 50 Martin RC, Howard J, Tomalty D. , et al. Toxicity of irinotecan-eluting beads in the treatment of hepatic malignancies: results of a multi-institutional registry. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2010; 33 (05) 960-966
• 51 Gray B, Van Hazel G, Hope M. , et al. Randomised trial of SIR-Spheres plus chemotherapy vs. chemotherapy alone for treating patients with liver metastases from primary large bowel cancer. Ann Oncol 2001; 12 (12) 1711-1720
• 52 Van Hazel G, Blackwell A, Anderson J. , et al. Randomised phase 2 trial of SIR-Spheres plus fluorouracil/leucovorin chemotherapy versus fluorouracil/leucovorin chemotherapy alone in advanced colorectal cancer. J Surg Oncol 2004; 88 (02) 78-85
• 53 Gibbs P, Gebski V, Van Buskirk M, Thurston K, Cade DN, Van Hazel GA. ; SIRFLOX Study Group. Selective Internal Radiation Therapy (SIRT) with yttrium-90 resin microspheres plus standard systemic chemotherapy regimen of FOLFOX versus FOLFOX alone as first-line treatment of non-resectable liver metastases from colorectal cancer: the SIRFLOX study. BMC Cancer 2014; 14: 897-906
• 54 Kjellström J, Kjellén E, Johnsson A. In vitro radiosensitization by oxaliplatin and 5-fluorouracil in a human colon cancer cell line. Acta Oncol 2005; 44 (07) 687-693
• 55 Sharma RA, Van Hazel GA, Morgan B. , et al. Radioembolization of liver metastases from colorectal cancer using yttrium-90 microspheres with concomitant systemic oxaliplatin, fluorouracil, and leucovorin chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25 (09) 1099-1106
• 56 Kosmider S, Tan TH, Yip D, Dowling R, Lichtenstein M, Gibbs P. Radioembolization in combination with systemic chemotherapy as first-line therapy for liver metastases from colorectal cancer. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2011; 22 (06) 780-786
• 57 van Hazel GA, Heinemann V, Sharma NK. , et al. SIRFLOX: Randomized phase III trial comparing first-line mFOLFOX6 (plus or minus bevacizumab) versus mFOLFOX6 (plus or minus bevacizumab) plus selective internal radiation therapy in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 2016; 34 (15) 1723-1731
• 58 Dutton SJ, Kenealy N, Love SB, Wasan HS, Sharma RA. ; FOXFIRE Protocol Development Group and the NCRI Colorectal Clinical Study Group. FOXFIRE protocol: an open-label, randomised, phase III trial of 5-fluorouracil, oxaliplatin and folinic acid (OxMdG) with or without interventional Selective Internal Radiation Therapy (SIRT) as first-line treatment for patients with unresectable liver-only or liver-dominant metastatic colorectal cancer. BMC Cancer 2014; 14: 497-503
• 59 Hickey R, Lewandowski RJ, Prudhomme T. , et al. 90Y radioembolization of colorectal hepatic metastases using glass microspheres: safety and survival outcomes from a 531-patient multicenter study. J Nucl Med 2016; 57 (05) 665-671
• 60 Kennedy AS, Coldwell D, Nutting C. , et al. Resin 90Y-microsphere brachytherapy for unresectable colorectal liver metastases: modern USA experience. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2006; 65 (02) 412-425
• 61 Jakobs TF, Hoffmann RT, Dehm K. , et al. Hepatic yttrium-90 radioembolization of chemotherapy-refractory colorectal cancer liver metastases. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2008; 19 (08) 1187-1195
• 62 Mulcahy MF, Lewandowski RJ, Ibrahim SM. , et al. Radioembolization of colorectal hepatic metastases using yttrium-90 microspheres. Cancer 2009; 115 (09) 1849-1858
• 63 Cianni R, Urigo C, Notarianni E. , et al. Selective internal radiation therapy with SIR-spheres for the treatment of unresectable colorectal hepatic metastases. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2009; 32 (06) 1179-1186
• 64 Cosimelli M, Golfieri R, Cagol PP. , et al; Italian Society of Locoregional Therapies in Oncology (SITILO). Multi-centre phase II clinical trial of yttrium-90 resin microspheres alone in unresectable, chemotherapy refractory colorectal liver metastases. Br J Cancer 2010; 103 (03) 324-331
• 65 Evans KA, Richardson MG, Pavlakis N, Morris DL, Liauw W, Bester L. Survival outcomes of a salvage patient population after radioembolization of hepatic metastases with yttrium-90 microspheres. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2010; 21 (10) 1521-1526
• 66 Bester L, Meteling B, Pocock N. , et al. Radioembolization versus standard care of hepatic metastases: comparative retrospective cohort study of survival outcomes and adverse events in salvage patients. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2012; 23 (01) 96-105
• 67 Lewandowski RJ, Memon K, Mulcahy MF. , et al. Twelve-year experience of radioembolization for colorectal hepatic metastases in 214 patients: survival by era and chemotherapy. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2014; 41 (10) 1861-1869
• 68 Saxena A, Meteling B, Kapoor J, Golani S, Morris DL, Bester L. Is yttrium-90 radioembolization a viable treatment option for unresectable, chemorefractory colorectal cancer liver metastases? A large single-center experience of 302 patients. Ann Surg Oncol 2015; 22 (03) 794-802
• 69 Golfieri R, Mosconi C, Giampalma E. , et al. Selective transarterial radioembolisation of unresectable liver-dominant colorectal cancer refractory to chemotherapy. Radiol Med (Torino) 2015; 120 (08) 767-776
• 70 Kennedy AS, Ball D, Cohen SJ. , et al. Multicenter evaluation of the safety and efficacy of radioembolization in patients with unresectable colorectal liver metastases selected as candidates for (90)Y resin microspheres. J Gastrointest Oncol 2015; 6 (02) 134-142
• 71 Yao JC, Hassan M, Phan A. , et al. One hundred years after “carcinoid”: epidemiology of and prognostic factors for neuroendocrine tumors in 35,825 cases in the United States. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26 (18) 3063-3072
• 72 Norton JA, Jensen RT. Resolved and unresolved controversies in the surgical management of patients with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Ann Surg 2004; 240 (05) 757-773
• 73 Modlin IM, Lye KD, Kidd M. A 5-decade analysis of 13,715 carcinoid tumors. Cancer 2003; 97 (04) 934-959
• 74 Janson ET, Holmberg L, Stridsberg M. , et al. Carcinoid tumors: analysis of prognostic factors and survival in 301 patients from a referral center. Ann Oncol 1997; 8 (07) 685-690
• 75 Soga J. Statistical evaluation of 2001 carcinoid cases with metastases, collected from literature: a comparative study between ordinary carcinoids and atypical varieties. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 1998; 17 (01) 3-12
• 76 Akyildiz HY, Mitchell J, Milas M, Siperstein A, Berber E. Laparoscopic radiofrequency thermal ablation of neuroendocrine hepatic metastases: long-term follow-up. Surgery 2010; 148 (06) 1288-1293 , discussion 1293
• 77 Mohan H, Nicholson P, Winter DC. , et al. Radiofrequency ablation for neuroendocrine liver metastases: a systematic review. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2015; 26 (07) 935-942.e1
• 78 Steinmüller T, Kianmanesh R, Falconi M. , et al; Frascati Consensus Conference participants. Consensus guidelines for the management of patients with liver metastases from digestive (neuro)endocrine tumors: foregut, midgut, hindgut, and unknown primary. Neuroendocrinology 2008; 87 (01) 47-62
• 79 de Baere T, Deschamps F, Tselikas L. , et al. GEP-NETS update: Interventional radiology: role in the treatment of liver metastases from GEP-NETs. Eur J Endocrinol 2015; 172 (04) R151-R166
• 80 Ruutiainen AT, Soulen MC, Tuite CM. , et al. Chemoembolization and bland embolization of neuroendocrine tumor metastases to the liver. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2007; 18 (07) 847-855
• 81 Pitt SC, Knuth J, Keily JM. , et al. Hepatic neuroendocrine metastases: chemo- or bland embolization?. J Gastrointest Surg 2008; 12 (11) 1951-1960
• 82 Gupta S, Johnson MM, Murthy R. , et al. Hepatic arterial embolization and chemoembolization for the treatment of patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumors: variables affecting response rates and survival. Cancer 2005; 104 (08) 1590-1602
• 83 Kress O, Wagner HJ, Wied M, Klose KJ, Arnold R, Alfke H. Transarterial chemoembolization of advanced liver metastases of neuroendocrine tumors--a retrospective single-center analysis. Digestion 2003; 68 (2-3): 94-101
• 84 Kennedy AS, Dezarn WA, McNeillie P. , et al. Radioembolization for unresectable neuroendocrine hepatic metastases using resin 90Y-microspheres: early results in 148 patients. Am J Clin Oncol 2008; 31 (03) 271-279
• 85 Chen JX, Rose S, White SB. , et al. Embolotherapy for neuroendocrine tumor liver metastases: prognostic factors for hepatic progression-free survival and overall survival. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2017; 40 (01) 69-80
• 86 Stockler M, Wilcken NR, Ghersi D, Simes RJ. Systematic reviews of chemotherapy and endocrine therapy in metastatic breast cancer. Cancer Treat Rev 2000; 26 (03) 151-168
• 87 Jain SK, Dorn PL, Chmura SJ. , et al. Incidence and implications of oligometastatic breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2012; 30 (Suppl): e11512
• 88 Hanrahan EO, Broglio KR, Buzdar AU. , et al. Combined-modality treatment for isolated recurrences of breast carcinoma: update on 30 years of experience at the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center and assessment of prognostic factors. Cancer 2005; 104 (06) 1158-1171
• 89 Kobayashi T, Ichiba T, Sakuyama T. , et al. Possible clinical cure of metastatic breast cancer: lessons from our 30-year experience with oligometastatic breast cancer patients and literature review. Breast Cancer 2012; 19 (03) 218-237
• 90 Weinrich M, Weiß C, Schuld J, Rau BM. Liver resections of isolated liver metastasis in breast cancer: results and possible prognostic factors. HPB Surg 2014; 2014: 893829
• 91 van Walsum GA, de Ridder JA, Verhoef C. , et al; Dutch Liver Surgeons Group. Resection of liver metastases in patients with breast cancer: survival and prognostic factors. Eur J Surg Oncol 2012; 38 (10) 910-917
• 92 Hoffmann K, Franz C, Hinz U. , et al. Liver resection for multimodal treatment of breast cancer metastases: identification of prognostic factors. Ann Surg Oncol 2010; 17 (06) 1546-1554
• 93 Caralt M, Bilbao I, Cortés J. , et al. Hepatic resection for liver metastases as part of the “oncosurgical” treatment of metastatic breast cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 2008; 15 (10) 2804-2810
• 94 Lubrano J, Roman H, Tarrab S, Resch B, Marpeau L, Scotté M. Liver resection for breast cancer metastasis: does it improve survival?. Surg Today 2008; 38 (04) 293-299
• 95 Adam R, Aloia T, Krissat J. , et al. Is liver resection justified for patients with hepatic metastases from breast cancer?. Ann Surg 2006; 244 (06) 897-907 , discussion 907–908
• 96 Pagani O, Senkus E, Wood W. , et al; ESO-MBC Task Force. International guidelines for management of metastatic breast cancer: can metastatic breast cancer be cured?. J Natl Cancer Inst 2010; 102 (07) 456-463
• 97 Bergenfeldt M, Jensen BV, Skjoldbye B, Nielsen D. Liver resection and local ablation of breast cancer liver metastases--a systematic review. Eur J Surg Oncol 2011; 37 (07) 549-557
• 98 Sofocleous CT, Nascimento RG, Gonen M. , et al. Radiofrequency ablation in the management of liver metastases from breast cancer. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2007; 189 (04) 883-889
• 99 Meloni MF, Andreano A, Laeseke PF, Livraghi T, Sironi S, Lee Jr FT. Breast cancer liver metastases: US-guided percutaneous radiofrequency ablation--intermediate and long-term survival rates. Radiology 2009; 253 (03) 861-869
• 100 Jakobs TF, Hoffmann R-T, Schrader A. , et al. CT-guided radiofrequency ablation in patients with hepatic metastases from breast cancer. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2009; 32 (01) 38-46
• 101 Carrafiello G, Fontana F, Cotta E. , et al. Ultrasound-guided thermal radiofrequency ablation (RFA) as an adjunct to systemic chemotherapy for breast cancer liver metastases. Radiol Med (Torino) 2011; 116 (07) 1059-1066
• 102 Gunabushanam G, Sharma S, Thulkar S. , et al. Radiofrequency ablation of liver metastases from breast cancer: results in 14 patients. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2007; 18 (1, Pt 1): 67-72
• 103 Vogl TJ, Freier V, Nour-Eldin NE, Eichler K, Zangos S, Naguib NN. Magnetic resonance-guided laser-induced interstitial thermotherapy of breast cancer liver metastases and other noncolorectal cancer liver metastases: an analysis of prognostic factors for long-term survival and progression-free survival. Invest Radiol 2013; 48 (06) 406-412
• 104 Mack MG, Straub R, Eichler K, Söllner O, Lehnert T, Vogl TJ. Breast cancer metastases in liver: laser-induced interstitial thermotherapy--local tumor control rate and survival data. Radiology 2004; 233 (02) 400-409
• 105 Eichler K, Jakobi S, Gruber-Rouh T, Hammerstingl R, Vogl TJ, Zangos S. Transarterial chemoembolisation (TACE) with gemcitabine: phase II study in patients with liver metastases of breast cancer. Eur J Radiol 2013; 82 (12) e816-e822
• 106 Giroux MF, Baum RA, Soulen MC. Chemoembolization of liver metastasis from breast carcinoma. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2004; 15 (03) 289-291
• 107 Vogl TJ, Naguib NN, Nour-Eldin NE, Eichler K, Zangos S, Gruber-Rouh T. Transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) with mitomycin C and gemcitabine for liver metastases in breast cancer. Eur Radiol 2010; 20 (01) 173-180
• 108 Duan XF, Dong NN, Zhang T, Li Q. Treatment outcome of patients with liver-only metastases from breast cancer after mastectomy: a retrospective analysis. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2011; 137 (09) 1363-1370
• 109 Li XP, Meng ZQ, Guo WJ, Li J. Treatment for liver metastases from breast cancer: results and prognostic factors. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11 (24) 3782-3787
• 110 Lin YT, Medioni J, Amouyal G. , et al. Doxorubicin-loaded 70–150 µm microspheres for liver-dominant metastatic breast cancer: results and outcomes of a pilot study. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2017; 40 (01) 81-89
• 111 Martin RC, Robbins K, Fagés JF. , et al. Optimal outcomes for liver-dominant metastatic breast cancer with transarterial chemoembolization with drug-eluting beads loaded with doxorubicin. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2012; 132 (02) 753-763
• 112 Saxena A, Kapoor J, Meteling B, Morris DL, Bester L. Yttrium-90 radioembolization for unresectable, chemoresistant breast cancer liver metastases: a large single-center experience of 40 patients. Ann Surg Oncol 2014; 21 (04) 1296-1303
• 113 Bangash AK, Atassi B, Kaklamani V. , et al. 90Y radioembolization of metastatic breast cancer to the liver: toxicity, imaging response, survival. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2007; 18 (05) 621-628
• 114 Coldwell DM, Kennedy AS, Nutting CW. Use of yttrium-90 microspheres in the treatment of unresectable hepatic metastases from breast cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2007; 69 (03) 800-804
• 115 Jakobs TF, Hoffmann RT, Fischer T. , et al. Radioembolization in patients with hepatic metastases from breast cancer. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2008; 19 (05) 683-690
• 116 Haug AR, Tiega Donfack BP, Trumm C. , et al. 18F-FDG PET/CT predicts survival after radioembolization of hepatic metastases from breast cancer. J Nucl Med 2012; 53 (03) 371-377
• 117 Gordon AC, Gradishar WJ, Kaklamani VG. , et al. Yttrium-90 radioembolization stops progression of targeted breast cancer liver metastases after failed chemotherapy. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2014; 25 (10) 1523-1532 , 1532.e1–1532.e2
• 118 Cianni R, Pelle G. Evidence-based integration of selective internal radiation therapy into the management of breast cancer liver metastases. Future Oncol 2014; 10 (15, Suppl): 93-95
• 119 Pieper CC, Meyer C, Wilhelm KE. , et al. Yttrium-90 radioembolization of advanced, unresectable breast cancer liver metastases—a single-center experience. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2016; 27 (09) 1305-1315
• 120 Kujala E, Mäkitie T, Kivelä T. Very long-term prognosis of patients with malignant uveal melanoma. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003; 44 (11) 4651-4659
• 121 Spagnolo F, Caltabiano G, Queirolo P. Uveal melanoma. Cancer Treat Rev 2012; 38 (05) 549-553
• 122 Mariani P, Almubarak MM, Kollen M. , et al. Radiofrequency ablation and surgical resection of liver metastases from uveal melanoma. Eur J Surg Oncol 2016; 42 (05) 706-712
• 123 Doussot A, Nardin C, Takaki H. , et al. Liver resection and ablation for metastatic melanoma: a single center experience. J Surg Oncol 2015; 111 (08) 962-968
• 124 Dayani PN, Gould JE, Brown DB, Sharma KV, Linette GP, Harbour JW. Hepatic metastasis from uveal melanoma: angiographic pattern predictive of survival after hepatic arterial chemoembolization. Arch Ophthalmol 2009; 127 (05) 628-632
• 125 Gupta S, Bedikian AY, Ahrar J. , et al. Hepatic artery chemoembolization in patients with ocular melanoma metastatic to the liver: response, survival, and prognostic factors. Am J Clin Oncol 2010; 33 (05) 474-480
• 126 Mavligit GM, Charnsangavej C, Carrasco CH, Patt YZ, Benjamin RS, Wallace S. Regression of ocular melanoma metastatic to the liver after hepatic arterial chemoembolization with cisplatin and polyvinyl sponge. JAMA 1988; 260 (07) 974-976
• 127 Bedikian AY, Legha SS, Mavligit G. , et al. Treatment of uveal melanoma metastatic to the liver: a review of the M. D. Anderson Cancer Center experience and prognostic factors. Cancer 1995; 76 (09) 1665-1670
• 128 Sato T, Nathan FE, Berd D. , et al. Lack of effect from chemoembolization for liver metastasis from uveal melanoma. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 1995; 14: 415
• 129 Patel K, Sullivan K, Berd D. , et al. Chemoembolization of the hepatic artery with BCNU for metastatic uveal melanoma: results of a phase II study. Melanoma Res 2005; 15 (04) 297-304
• 130 Huppert PE, Fierlbeck G, Pereira P. , et al. Transarterial chemoembolization of liver metastases in patients with uveal melanoma. Eur J Radiol 2010; 74 (03) e38-e44
• 131 Vogl T, Eichler K, Zangos S. , et al. Preliminary experience with transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) in liver metastases of uveal malignant melanoma: local tumor control and survival. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2007; 133 (03) 177-184
• 132 Edelhauser G, Schicher N, Berzaczy D. , et al. Fotemustine chemoembolization of hepatic metastases from uveal melanoma: a retrospective single-center analysis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2012; 199 (06) 1387-1392
• 133 Sharma KV, Gould JE, Harbour JW. , et al. Hepatic arterial chemoembolization for management of metastatic melanoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008; 190 (01) 99-104
• 134 Valpione S, Aliberti C, Parrozzani R. , et al. A retrospective analysis of 141 patients with liver metastases from uveal melanoma: a two-cohort study comparing transarterial chemoembolization with CPT-11 charged microbeads and historical treatments. Melanoma Res 2015; 25 (02) 164-168
• 135 Carling U, Dorenberg EJ, Haugvik SP. , et al. Transarterial chemoembolization of liver metastases from uveal melanoma using irinotecan-loaded beads: treatment response and complications. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2015; 38 (06) 1532-1541
• 136 Yamamoto A, Chervoneva I, Sullivan KL. , et al. High-dose immunoembolization: survival benefit in patients with hepatic metastases from uveal melanoma. Radiology 2009; 252 (01) 290-298
• 137 Valsecchi ME, Terai M, Eschelman DJ. , et al. Double-blinded, randomized phase II study using embolization with or without granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in uveal melanoma with hepatic metastases. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2015; 26 (04) 523-32.e2
• 138 Gonsalves CF, Eschelman DJ, Sullivan KL, Anne PR, Doyle L, Sato T. Radioembolization as salvage therapy for hepatic metastasis of uveal melanoma: a single-institution experience. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011; 196 (02) 468-473
• 139 Klingenstein A, Haug AR, Zech CJ, Schaller UC. Radioembolization as locoregional therapy of hepatic metastases in uveal melanoma patients. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2013; 36 (01) 158-165
• 140 Schelhorn J, Richly H, Ruhlmann M, Lauenstein TC, Theysohn JM. A single-center experience in radioembolization as salvage therapy of hepatic metastases of uveal melanoma. Acta Radiol Open 2015; 4 (04) 2047981615570417
• 141 Pingpank JF, Hughes MS, Faries MB. , et al. A phase III random assignment trial comparing percutaneous hepatic perfusion with melphalan (PHP-mel) to standard of care for patients with hepatic metastases from metastatic ocular or cutaneous melanoma. J Clin Oncol 2010; 28: 18s
• 142 Liu Z, Gao F, Yang G. , et al. Combination of radiofrequency ablation with transarterial chemoembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma: an up-to-date meta-analysis. Tumour Biol 2014; 35 (08) 7407-7413
• 143 Hammill CW, Billingsley KG, Cassera MA, Wolf RF, Ujiki MB, Hansen PD. Outcome after laparoscopic radiofrequency ablation of technically resectable colorectal liver metastases. Ann Surg Oncol 2011; 18 (07) 1947-1954
• 144 Nielsen K, van Tilborg AA, Meijerink MR. , et al. Incidence and treatment of local site recurrences following RFA of colorectal liver metastases. World J Surg 2013; 37 (06) 1340-1347
• 145 Gillams AR, Lees WR. Five-year survival following radiofrequency ablation of small, solitary, hepatic colorectal metastases. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2008; 19 (05) 712-717
• 146 Kim KH, Yoon YS, Yu CS. , et al. Comparative analysis of radiofrequency ablation and surgical resection for colorectal liver metastases. J Korean Surg Soc 2011; 81 (01) 25-34
• 147 Elias D, Di Pietroantonio D, Gachot B, Menegon P, Hakime A, De Baere T. Liver abscess after radiofrequency ablation of tumors in patients with a biliary tract procedure. Gastroenterol Clin Biol 2006; 30 (6-7): 823-827
• 148 Mulier S, Ni Y, Jamart J, Ruers T, Marchal G, Michel L. Local recurrence after hepatic radiofrequency coagulation: multivariate meta-analysis and review of contributing factors. Ann Surg 2005; 242 (02) 158-171
• 149 Kulik LM, Carr BI, Mulcahy MF. , et al. Safety and efficacy of 90Y radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma with and without portal vein thrombosis. Hepatology 2008; 47 (01) 71-81
• 150 Mazzaferro V, Sposito C, Bhoori S. , et al. Yttrium-90 radioembolization for intermediate-advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a phase 2 study. Hepatology 2013; 57 (05) 1826-1837
• 151 Biederman DM, Titano JJ, Tabori NE. , et al. Outcomes of radioembolization in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma with portal vein invasion: resin versus glass microspheres. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2016; 27 (06) 812-821.e2
• 152 Kothary N, Weintraub JL, Susman J, Rundback JH. Transarterial chemoembolization for primary hepatocellular carcinoma in patients at high risk. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2007; 18 (12) 1517-1526 , quiz 1527
• 153 Chung GE, Lee JH, Kim HY. , et al. Transarterial chemoembolization can be safely performed in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma invading the main portal vein and may improve the overall survival. Radiology 2011; 258 (02) 627-634
• 154 Narsinh KH, Van Buskirk M, Kennedy AS. , et al. Hepatopulmonary shunting: a prognostic indicator of survival in patients with metastatic colorectal adenocarcinoma treated with (90)Y radioembolization. Radiology 2017; 282 (01) 281-288
• 155 Ludwig JM, Ambinder EM, Ghodadra A, Xing M, Prajapati HJ, Kim HS. Lung shunt fraction prior to Yttrium-90 radioembolization predicts survival in patients with neuroendocrine liver metastases: single center prospective analysis. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2016; 39 (07) 1007-1014
• 156 Khan W, Sullivan KL, McCann JW. , et al. Moxifloxacin prophylaxis for chemoembolization or embolization in patients with previous biliary interventions: a pilot study. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011; 197 (02) W343-5
• 157 Frilling A, Clift AK. Therapeutic strategies for neuroendocrine liver metastases. Cancer 2015; 121 (08) 1172-1186