Download PDF
Semin Reprod Med 2020; 38(06): 352-365
DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1723779
Review Article

Prevention of Gestational Diabetes: The Role of Dietary Intake, Physical Activity, and Weight before, during, and between Pregnancies

Danielle A.J.M. Schoenaker 
1   School of Primary Care, Population Sciences and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
2   NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University of Southampton and University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, United Kingdom
,
Susan de Jersey 
3   Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Metro North Hospital and Health Service, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
4   Centre for Clinical Research and Perinatal Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
,
Jane Willcox 
5   School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
,
Monique E. Francois 
6   School of Medicine, Faculty of Science Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
7   Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
,
Shelley Wilkinson 
8   School of Human Movements and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
9   Mothers, Babies and Women's Theme, Mater Research Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
› Author Affiliations Funding D.A.J.M.S. is supported by the NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre. S.de.J. is supported by a Metro North Hospital and Health Service Clinician Research Fellowship. M.E.F. is supported by an NHMRC Emerging Leadership Investigator Grant.
› Further Information
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is the most common complication of pregnancy and a significant clinical and public health problem with lifelong and intergenerational adverse health consequences for mothers and their offspring. The preconception, early pregnancy, and interconception periods represent opportune windows to engage women in preventive and health promotion interventions. This review provides an overview of findings from observational and intervention studies on the role of diet, physical activity, and weight (change) during these periods in the primary prevention of GDM. Current evidence suggests that supporting women to increase physical activity and achieve appropriate weight gain during early pregnancy and enabling women to optimize their weight and health behaviors prior to and between pregnancies have the potential to reduce rates of GDM. Translation of current evidence into practice requires further development and evaluation of co-designed interventions across community, health service, and policy levels to determine how women can be reached and supported to optimize their health behaviors before, during, and between pregnancies to reduce GDM risk.

Keywords

prevention - gestational diabetes - diet - physical activity - weight - review


Publication History

Article published online:
02 February 2021

© 2021. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 World Health Organization. Diagnostic criteria and classification of hyperglycaemia first detected in pregnancy [online]. WHO Press; Geneva: 2013. . Accessed September 21, 2020 at: https://www.who.int/diabetes/publications/Hyperglycaemia_In_Pregnancy/en/
    Google Scholar
  • 2 McIntyre HD, Catalano P, Zhang C, Desoye G, Mathiesen ER, Damm P. Gestational diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2019; 5 (01) 47
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Cho GJ, Kim LY, Sung YN. et al. Secular trends of gestational diabetes mellitus and changes in its risk factors. PLoS One 2015; 10 (08) e0136017
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Zhou T, Sun D, Li X. et al. Prevalence and trends in gestational diabetes mellitus among women in the United States, 2006–2016. Diabetes 2018; 67 (01) 121-OR
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Gortazar L, Flores-Le Roux JA, Benaiges D. et al. Trends in prevalence of gestational diabetes and perinatal outcomes in Catalonia, Spain, 2006 to 2015: the Diagestcat Study. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2019; 35 (05) e3151
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Incidence of gestational diabetes in Australia [online]. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare; 2019 . Accessed September 21, 2020 at: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/diabetes/incidence-of-gestational-diabetes-in-australia
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Gillespie P, Cullinan J, O'Neill C, Dunne F. ATLANTIC DIP Collaborators. Modeling the independent effects of gestational diabetes mellitus on maternity care and costs. Diabetes Care 2013; 36 (05) 1111-1116
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Vounzoulaki E, Khunti K, Abner SC, Tan BK, Davies MJ, Gillies CL. Progression to type 2 diabetes in women with a known history of gestational diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2020; 369: m1361
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Kramer CK, Campbell S, Retnakaran R. Gestational diabetes and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia 2019; 62 (06) 905-914
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Fraser A, Lawlor DA. Long-term health outcomes in offspring born to women with diabetes in pregnancy. Curr Diab Rep 2014; 14 (05) 489
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Agarwal P, Morriseau TS, Kereliuk SM, Doucette CA, Wicklow BA, Dolinsky VW. Maternal obesity, diabetes during pregnancy and epigenetic mechanisms that influence the developmental origins of cardiometabolic disease in the offspring. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2018; 55 (02) 71-101
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Gillman MW, Oakey H, Baghurst PA, Volkmer RE, Robinson JS, Crowther CA. Effect of treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus on obesity in the next generation. Diabetes Care 2010; 33 (05) 964-968
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Schoenaker DA, Mishra GD, Callaway LK, Soedamah-Muthu SS. The role of energy, nutrients, foods, and dietary patterns in the development of gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review of observational studies. Diabetes Care 2016; 39 (01) 16-23
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Aminianfar A, Soltani S, Hajianfar H, Azadbakht L, Shahshahan Z, Esmaillzadeh A. The association between dietary glycemic index and load and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2020; 170: 108469
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Hasbullah FY, Mohd Yusof BN, Shariff ZM, Rejali Z, Yong HY, Mitri J. Factors associated with dietary glycemic index and glycemic load in pregnant women and risk for gestational diabetes mellitus. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2020; 71 (04) 516-524
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Radesky JS, Oken E, Rifas-Shiman SL, Kleinman KP, Rich-Edwards JW, Gillman MW. Diet during early pregnancy and development of gestational diabetes. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2008; 22 (01) 47-59
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Mijatovic-Vukas J, Capling L, Cheng S. et al. Associations of diet and physical activity with risk for gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 2018; 10 (06) E698
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Aghajafari F, Nagulesapillai T, Ronksley PE, Tough SC, O'Beirne M, Rabi DM. Association between maternal serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and pregnancy and neonatal outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ 2013; 346: f1169
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Marí-Sanchis A, Díaz-Jurado G, Basterra-Gortari FJ, de la Fuente-Arrillaga C, Martínez-González MA, Bes-Rastrollo M. Association between pre-pregnancy consumption of meat, iron intake, and the risk of gestational diabetes: the SUN project. Eur J Nutr 2018; 57 (03) 939-949
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Gresham E, Collins CE, Mishra GD, Byles JE, Hure AJ. Diet quality before or during pregnancy and the relationship with pregnancy and birth outcomes: the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Public Health Nutr 2016; 19 (16) 2975-2983
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Shin D, Lee KW, Song WO. Dietary patterns during pregnancy are associated with risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Nutrients 2015; 7 (11) 9369-9382
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Karamanos B, Thanopoulou A, Anastasiou E. et al; MGSD-GDM Study Group. Relation of the Mediterranean diet with the incidence of gestational diabetes. Eur J Clin Nutr 2014; 68 (01) 8-13
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Zhang C, Rawal S, Chong YS. Risk factors for gestational diabetes: is prevention possible?. Diabetologia 2016; 59 (07) 1385-1390
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Tobias DK, Zhang C, van Dam RM, Bowers K, Hu FB. Physical activity before and during pregnancy and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 2011; 34 (01) 223-229
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Egan AM, Dennedy MC, Al-Ramli W, Heerey A, Avalos G, Dunne F. ATLANTIC-DIP: excessive gestational weight gain and pregnancy outcomes in women with gestational or pregestational diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99 (01) 212-219
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Brunner S, Stecher L, Ziebarth S. et al. Excessive gestational weight gain prior to glucose screening and the risk of gestational diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetologia 2015; 58 (10) 2229-2237
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Hedderson MM, Gunderson EP, Ferrara A. Gestational weight gain and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol 2010; 115 (03) 597-604
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Carreno CA, Clifton RG, Hauth JC. et al; Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units (MFMU) Network. Excessive early gestational weight gain and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus in nulliparous women. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 119 (06) 1227-1233
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Rasmussen K. Weight Gain during Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines, Institute of Medicine (US) and National Research Council (US) Committee to Reexamine IOM Pregnancy Weight Guidelines. 2009
  • 30 Champion ML, Harper LM. Gestational weight gain: update on outcomes and interventions. Curr Diab Rep 2020; 20 (03) 11
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Kapadia MZ, Park CK, Beyene J, Giglia L, Maxwell C, McDonald SD. Weight loss instead of weight gain within the guidelines in obese women during pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analyses of maternal and infant outcomes. PLoS One 2015; 10 (07) e0132650
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Voerman E, Santos S, Inskip H. et al; LifeCycle Project-Maternal Obesity and Childhood Outcomes Study Group. Association of gestational weight gain with adverse maternal and infant outcomes. JAMA 2019; 321 (17) 1702-1715
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 International Weight Management in Pregnancy (i-WIP) Collaborative Group. Effect of diet and physical activity based interventions in pregnancy on gestational weight gain and pregnancy outcomes: meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomised trials. BMJ 2017; 358: j3119
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Song C, Li J, Leng J, Ma RC, Yang X. Lifestyle intervention can reduce the risk of gestational diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Obes Rev 2016; 17 (10) 960-969
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Guo XY, Shu J, Fu XH. et al. Improving the effectiveness of lifestyle interventions for gestational diabetes prevention: a meta-analysis and meta-regression. BJOG 2019; 126 (03) 311-320
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Davenport MH, Ruchat SM, Poitras VJ. et al. Prenatal exercise for the prevention of gestational diabetes mellitus and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2018; 52 (21) 1367-1375
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Bennett CJ, Walker RE, Blumfield ML. et al. Interventions designed to reduce excessive gestational weight gain can reduce the incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2018; 141: 69-79
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Fleming TP, Watkins AJ, Velazquez MA. et al. Origins of lifetime health around the time of conception: causes and consequences. Lancet 2018; 391 (10132): 1842-1852
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Bowers K, Yeung E, Williams MA. et al. A prospective study of prepregnancy dietary iron intake and risk for gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2011; 34 (07) 1557-1563
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Qiu C, Zhang C, Gelaye B, Enquobahrie DA, Frederick IO, Williams MA. Gestational diabetes mellitus in relation to maternal dietary heme iron and nonheme iron intake. Diabetes Care 2011; 34 (07) 1564-1569
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Bowers K, Tobias DK, Yeung E, Hu FB, Zhang C. A prospective study of prepregnancy dietary fat intake and risk of gestational diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 95 (02) 446-453
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Bao W, Bowers K, Tobias DK, Hu FB, Zhang C. Prepregnancy dietary protein intake, major dietary protein sources, and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study. Diabetes Care 2013; 36 (07) 2001-2008
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Chen L, Hu FB, Yeung E, Willett W, Zhang C. Prospective study of pre-gravid sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2009; 32 (12) 2236-2241
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Zhang C, Schulze MB, Solomon CG, Hu FB. A prospective study of dietary patterns, meat intake and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 2006; 49 (11) 2604-2613
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Bao W, Tobias DK, Olsen SF, Zhang C. Pre-pregnancy fried food consumption and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study. Diabetologia 2014; 57 (12) 2485-2491
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Dominguez LJ, Martínez-González MA, Basterra-Gortari FJ, Gea A, Barbagallo M, Bes-Rastrollo M. Fast food consumption and gestational diabetes incidence in the SUN project. PLoS One 2014; 9 (09) e106627
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Looman M, Schoenaker DAJM, Soedamah-Muthu SS, Geelen A, Feskens EJM, Mishra GD. Pre-pregnancy dietary carbohydrate quantity and quality, and risk of developing gestational diabetes: the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Br J Nutr 2018; 120 (04) 435-444
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Bao W, Bowers K, Tobias DK. et al. Prepregnancy low-carbohydrate dietary pattern and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr 2014; 99 (06) 1378-1384
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Looman M, Schoenaker DAJM, Soedamah-Muthu SS, Mishra GD, Geelen A, Feskens EJM. Pre-pregnancy dietary micronutrient adequacy is associated with lower risk of developing gestational diabetes in Australian women. Nutr Res 2019; 62: 32-40
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Schoenaker DA, Soedamah-Muthu SS, Callaway LK, Mishra GD. Pre-pregnancy dietary patterns and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: results from an Australian population-based prospective cohort study. Diabetologia 2015; 58 (12) 2726-2735
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Donazar-Ezcurra M, Lopez-Del Burgo C, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Basterra-Gortari FJ, de Irala J, Bes-Rastrollo M. Pre-pregnancy adherences to empirically derived dietary patterns and gestational diabetes risk in a Mediterranean cohort: the Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra (SUN) project. Br J Nutr 2017; 118 (09) 715-721
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Zhang C, Liu S, Solomon CG, Hu FB. Dietary fiber intake, dietary glycemic load, and the risk for gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2006; 29 (10) 2223-2230
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Tobias DK, Zhang C, Chavarro J. et al. Prepregnancy adherence to dietary patterns and lower risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 96 (02) 289-295
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Gicevic S, Gaskins AJ, Fung TT. et al. Evaluating pre-pregnancy dietary diversity vs. dietary quality scores as predictors of gestational diabetes and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. PLoS One 2018; 13 (04) e0195103
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Schoenaker DA, Soedamah-Muthu SS, Mishra GD. Quantifying the mediating effect of body mass index on the relation between a Mediterranean diet and development of maternal pregnancy complications: the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Am J Clin Nutr 2016; 104 (03) 638-645
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Poston L, Caleyachetty R, Cnattingius S. et al. Preconceptional and maternal obesity: epidemiology and health consequences. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2016; 4 (12) 1025-1036
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 MacInnis N, Woolcott CG, McDonald S, Kuhle S. Population attributable risk fractions of maternal overweight and obesity for adverse perinatal outcomes. Sci Rep 2016; 6: 22895
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Yeung EH, Hu FB, Solomon CG. et al. Life-course weight characteristics and the risk of gestational diabetes. Diabetologia 2010; 53 (04) 668-678
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Adane AA, Tooth LR, Mishra GD. Pre-pregnancy weight change and incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus: a finding from a prospective cohort study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2017; 124: 72-80
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Schummers L, Hutcheon JA, Bodnar LM, Lieberman E, Himes KP. Risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes by prepregnancy body mass index: a population-based study to inform prepregnancy weight loss counseling. Obstet Gynecol 2015; 125 (01) 133-143
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Yi XY, Li QF, Zhang J, Wang ZH. A meta-analysis of maternal and fetal outcomes of pregnancy after bariatric surgery. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2015; 130 (01) 3-9
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Shawe J, Ceulemans D, Akhter Z. et al. Pregnancy after bariatric surgery: consensus recommendations for periconception, antenatal and postnatal care. Obes Rev 2019; 20 (11) 1507-1522
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Oteng-Ntim E, Mononen S, Sawicki O, Seed PT, Bick D, Poston L. Interpregnancy weight change and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2018; 8 (06) e018778
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Teulings NEWD, Masconi KL, Ozanne SE, Aiken CE, Wood AM. Effect of interpregnancy weight change on perinatal outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2019; 19 (01) 386
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Timmermans YEG, van de Kant KDG, Oosterman EO. et al. The impact of interpregnancy weight change on perinatal outcomes in women and their children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev 2020; 21 (03) e12974
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Sorbye LM, Cnattingius S, Skjaerven R. et al. Interpregnancy weight change and recurrence of gestational diabetes mellitus: a population-based cohort study. BJOG 2020; 127 (13) 1608-1616
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Zhang C, Tobias DK, Chavarro JE. et al. Adherence to healthy lifestyle and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2014; 349: g5450
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 van der Windt M, van der Kleij RM, Snoek KM. et al. Impact of a blended periconception lifestyle care approach on lifestyle behaviors: before-and-after study. J Med Internet Res 2020; 22 (09) e19378
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 van Dijk MR, Koster MPH, Oostingh EC, Willemsen SP, Steegers EAP, Steegers-Theunissen RPM. A mobile app lifestyle intervention to improve healthy nutrition in women before and during early pregnancy: single-center randomized controlled trial. J Med Internet Res 2020; 22 (05) e15773
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Jack BW, Bickmore T, Yinusa-Nyahkoon L. et al. Improving the health of young African American women in the preconception period using health information technology: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Digital Health. 2020; 2 (09) e475-e485
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Brown HK, Mueller M, Edwards S. et al. Preconception health interventions delivered in public health and community settings: a systematic review. Can J Public Health 2017; 108 (04) e388-e397
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Hemsing N, Greaves L, Poole N. Preconception health care interventions: a scoping review. Sex Reprod Healthc 2017; 14: 24-32
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 LeBlanc ES, Vesco KK, Funk KL, Karanja N, Smith N, Stevens VJ. Prepare, a randomized trial to promote and evaluate weight loss among overweight and obese women planning pregnancy: study design and rationale. Contemp Clin Trials 2016; 49: 174-180
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Godfrey KM, Cutfield W, Chan S-Y, Baker PN, Chong YS. NiPPeR Study Group. Nutritional Intervention Preconception and During Pregnancy to Maintain Healthy Glucose Metabolism and Offspring Health (“NiPPeR”): study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials 2017; 18 (01) 131
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Bogaerts A, Ameye L, Bijlholt M, Amuli K, Heynickx D, Devlieger R. INTER-ACT: prevention of pregnancy complications through an e-health driven interpregnancy lifestyle intervention - study protocol of a multicentre randomised controlled trial. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2017; 17 (01) 154
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Killeen SL, Callaghan SL, Jacob CM, Hanson MA, McAuliffe FM. Examining the use of the FIGO Nutrition Checklist in routine antenatal practice: multistakeholder feedback to implementation. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2020; 151 (Suppl. 01) 51-56
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Jacob CM, Killeen SL, McAuliffe FM. et al. Prevention of noncommunicable diseases by interventions in the preconception period: a FIGO position paper for action by healthcare practitioners. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2020; 151 (Suppl. 01) 6-15
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Hod M, Kapur A, Sacks DA. et al. The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) initiative on gestational diabetes mellitus: a pragmatic guide for diagnosis, management, and care. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2015; 131 (Suppl. 03) S173-S211
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Schoenaker DAJM, Vergouwe Y, Soedamah-Muthu SS, Callaway LK, Mishra GD. Preconception risk of gestational diabetes: development of a prediction model in nulliparous Australian women. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2018; 146: 48-57
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Donovan BM, Breheny PJ, Robinson JG. et al. Development and validation of a clinical model for preconception and early pregnancy risk prediction of gestational diabetes mellitus in nulliparous women. PLoS One 2019; 14 (04) e0215173
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Wellings K, Jones KG, Mercer CH. et al. The prevalence of unplanned pregnancy and associated factors in Britain: findings from the third National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (NATSAL-3). Lancet 2013; 382 (9907): 1807-1816
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Sedgh G, Singh S, Hussain R. Intended and unintended pregnancies worldwide in 2012 and recent trends. Stud Fam Plann 2014; 45 (03) 301-314
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Koren O, Goodrich JK, Cullender TC. et al. Host remodeling of the gut microbiome and metabolic changes during pregnancy. Cell 2012; 150 (03) 470-480
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Wickens KL, Barthow CA, Murphy R. et al. Early pregnancy probiotic supplementation with Lactobacillus rhamnosus HN001 may reduce the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr 2017; 117 (06) 804-813
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Luoto R, Laitinen K, Nermes M, Isolauri E. Impact of maternal probiotic-supplemented dietary counselling on pregnancy outcome and prenatal and postnatal growth: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Nutr 2010; 103 (12) 1792-1799
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Laitinen K, Poussa T, Isolauri E. Nutrition, Allergy, Mucosal Immunology and Intestinal Microbiota Group. Probiotics and dietary counselling contribute to glucose regulation during and after pregnancy: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr 2009; 101 (11) 1679-1687
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Aaltonen J, Ojala T, Laitinen K, Piirainen TJ, Poussa TA, Isolauri E. Evidence of infant blood pressure programming by maternal nutrition during pregnancy: a prospective randomized controlled intervention study. J Pediatr 2008; 152 (01) 79-84 , 84.e1–84.e2
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Callaway LK, McIntyre HD, Barrett HL. et al. Probiotics for the prevention of gestational diabetes mellitus in overweight and obese women: findings from the SPRING Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial. Diabetes Care 2019; 42 (03) 364-371
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Abell SK, De Courten B, Boyle JA, Teede HJ. Inflammatory and other biomarkers: role in pathophysiology and prediction of gestational diabetes mellitus. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16 (06) 13442-13473
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Asemi Z, Samimi M, Tabassi Z, Sabihi SS, Esmaillzadeh A. A randomized controlled clinical trial investigating the effect of DASH diet on insulin resistance, inflammation, and oxidative stress in gestational diabetes. Nutrition 2013; 29 (04) 619-624
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Shivappa N, Hébert JR, Akhoundan M, Mirmiran P, Rashidkhani B. Association between inflammatory potential of diet and odds of gestational diabetes mellitus among Iranian women. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2019; 32 (21) 3552-3558
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Plaza-Díaz J, Ruiz-Ojeda FJ, Vilchez-Padial LM, Gil A. Evidence of the anti-inflammatory effects of probiotics and synbiotics in intestinal chronic diseases. nutrients 2017; 9 (06) e555
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Ruan Y, Sun J, He J, Chen F, Chen R, Chen H. Effect of probiotics on glycemic control: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. PLoS One 2015; 10 (07) e0132121
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Nguyen-Ngo C, Salomon C, Quak S, Lai A, Willcox JC, Lappas M. Nobiletin exerts anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory effects in an in vitro human model and in vivo murine model of gestational diabetes. Clin Sci (Lond) 2020; 134 (06) 571-592
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Nguyen-Ngo C, Willcox JC, Lappas M. Anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant effects of naringenin in an in vitro human model and an in vivo murine model of gestational diabetes mellitus. Mol Nutr Food Res 2019; 63 (19) e1900224
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Asemi Z, Jamilian M, Mesdaghinia E, Esmaillzadeh A. Effects of selenium supplementation on glucose homeostasis, inflammation, and oxidative stress in gestational diabetes: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Nutrition 2015; 31 (10) 1235-1242
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Plows JF, Reynolds CM, Vickers MH, Baker PN, Stanley JL. Nutritional supplementation for the prevention and/or treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus. Curr Diab Rep 2019; 19 (09) 73
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Barakat R, Cordero Y, Coteron J, Luaces M, Montejo R. Exercise during pregnancy improves maternal glucose screen at 24-28 weeks: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Sports Med 2012; 46 (09) 656-661
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Halse RE, Wallman KE, Newnham JP, Guelfi KJ. Home-based exercise training improves capillary glucose profile in women with gestational diabetes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2014; 46 (09) 1702-1709
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Wang C, Wei Y, Zhang X. et al. A randomized clinical trial of exercise during pregnancy to prevent gestational diabetes mellitus and improve pregnancy outcome in overweight and obese pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2017; 216 (04) 340-351
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Ong MJ, Wallman KE, Fournier PA, Newnham JP, Guelfi KJ. Enhancing energy expenditure and enjoyment of exercise during pregnancy through the addition of brief higher intensity intervals to traditional continuous moderate intensity cycling. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2016; 16 (01) 161
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Barakat R, Franco E, Perales M, López C, Mottola MF. Exercise during pregnancy is associated with a shorter duration of labor. A randomized clinical trial. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2018; 224: 33-40
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Rakhshani A, Nagarathna R, Mhaskar R, Mhaskar A, Thomas A, Gunasheela S. The effects of yoga in prevention of pregnancy complications in high-risk pregnancies: a randomized controlled trial. Prev Med 2012; 55 (04) 333-340
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Pew Research Center. Smartphone Ownership Is Growing Rapidly Around the World, but Not Always Equally. Washington, DC: 2019
    Google Scholar
  • 105 Abroms LC, Padmanabhan N, Evans WD. Mobile phone for health communication to promote behaviour change. In: Noar SM, Harrington NG. eds. eHealth Applications: Promising Strategies for Behaviour Change. New York: Routledge; 2012
    Google Scholar
  • 106 Phelan S. Windows of opportunity for lifestyle interventions to prevent gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Perinatol 2016; 33 (13) 1291-1299
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Kennelly MA, McAuliffe FM. Prediction and prevention of gestational diabetes: an update of recent literature. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2016; 202: 92-98
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Willcox JC, van der Pligt P, Ball K. et al. Views of women and health professionals on mHealth lifestyle interventions in pregnancy: a qualitative investigation. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 2015; 3 (04) e99
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Garnweidner-Holme L, Hoel Andersen T, Sando MW, Noll J, Lukasse M. Health care professionals' attitudes toward, and experiences of using, a culture-sensitive smartphone app for women with gestational diabetes mellitus: qualitative study. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth 2018; 6 (05) e123
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Farzandipour M, Nabovati E, Anvari S, Vahedpoor Z, Sharif R. Phone-based interventions to control gestational weight gain: a systematic review on features and effects. Inform Health Soc Care 2020; 45 (01) 15-30
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 O'Reilly SL, Laws R. Health-e mums: evaluating a smartphone app design for diabetes prevention in women with previous gestational diabetes. Nutr Diet 2019; 76 (05) 507-514
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Nicholson WK, Beckham AJ, Hatley K. et al. The Gestational Diabetes Management System (GooDMomS): development, feasibility and lessons learned from a patient-informed, web-based pregnancy and postpartum lifestyle intervention. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2016; 16 (01) 277
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Guo H, Zhang Y, Li P, Zhou P, Chen LM, Li SY. Evaluating the effects of mobile health intervention on weight management, glycemic control and pregnancy outcomes in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus. J Endocrinol Invest 2019; 42 (06) 709-714
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Skar JB, Garnweidner-Holme LM, Lukasse M, Terragni L. Women's experiences with using a smartphone app (the Pregnant+ app) to manage gestational diabetes mellitus in a randomised controlled trial. Midwifery 2018; 58: 102-108
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Nwolise CH, Carey N, Shawe J. Preconception care education for women with diabetes: a systematic review of conventional and digital health interventions. J Med Internet Res 2016; 18 (11) e291
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Ainscough KM, O'Brien EC, Lindsay KL. et al. Nutrition, behavior change and physical activity outcomes from the PEARS RCT - an mHealth-supported, lifestyle intervention among pregnant women with overweight and obesity. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 10: 938
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Kennelly MA, Ainscough K, Lindsay K, Gibney E, Mc Carthy M, McAuliffe FM. Pregnancy, exercise and nutrition research study with smart phone app support (Pears): Study protocol of a randomized controlled trial. Contemp Clin Trials 2016; 46: 92-99
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 O'Sullivan EJ, Rokicki S, Kennelly M, Ainscough K, McAuliffe FM. Cost-effectiveness of a mobile health-supported lifestyle intervention for pregnant women with an elevated body mass index. Int J Obes 2020; 44 (05) 999-1010
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 World Health Organization (WHO). Healthy diet. Key facts. [online]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2020 . Accessed September 22, 2020 at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 World Health Organization (WHO). Global recommendations on physical activity for health [online]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010. . Accessed September 22, 2020 at: https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/9789241599979/en/
    Google Scholar
  • 121 World Health Organization (WHO). Global Health Observatory data. Mean Body Mass Index (BMI) [online]. Accessed September 22, 2020 at: https://www.who.int/gho/ncd/risk_factors/bmi_text/en/
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 122 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Recommendations to Improve Preconception Health and Health Care - United States. A Report of the CDC/ATSDR Preconception Care Work Group and the Select Panel on Preconception Care [online]. 2006 . Accessed September 23, 2020 at: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5506a1.htm
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 123 Shawe J, Delbaere I, Ekstrand M. et al. Preconception care policy, guidelines, recommendations and services across six European countries: Belgium (Flanders), Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2015; 20 (02) 77-87
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 124 Royal Australian College of General Practitioners (RACGP). The Red Book. Guidelines for preventive activities in general practice. Chapter 1. Preventive activities prior to pregnancy [online]. . Accessed September 23, 2020 at: https://www.racgp.org.au/clinical-resources/clinical-guidelines/key-racgp-guidelines/view-all-racgp-guidelines/red-book/preventive-activities-prior-to-pregnancy#ref-num-5
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 125 National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Pre-conception – advice and management [online]. 2019 . Accessed September 23, 2020 at: https://cks.nice.org.uk/pre-conception-advice-and-management
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 126 McAuliffe FM, Killeen SL, Jacob CM. et al. Management of prepregnancy, pregnancy, and postpartum obesity from the FIGO Pregnancy and Non-Communicable Diseases Committee: a FIGO (International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics) guideline. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2020; 151 (Suppl. 01) 16-36
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 127 Kominiarek MA, Rajan P. Nutrition recommendations in pregnancy and lactation. Med Clin North Am 2016; 100 (06) 1199-1215
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 128 National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). Healthy Eating during Your Pregnancy. National Health and Medical Research Council; Canberra: 2013
    Google Scholar
  • 129 National Health Service (NHS). Have a healthy diet in pregnancy [online]. 2020 . Accessed September 22, 2020 at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/healthy-pregnancy-diet/
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 130 Evenson KR, Barakat R, Brown WJ. et al. Guidelines for physical activity during pregnancy: comparisons from around the world. Am J Lifestyle Med 2014; 8 (02) 102-121
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 131 Institute of Medicine. Weight Gain during Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2009
    Google Scholar
  • 132 Chen C, Xu X, Yan Y. Estimated global overweight and obesity burden in pregnant women based on panel data model. PLoS One 2018; 13 (08) e0202183
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 133 Caut C, Leach M, Steel A. Dietary guideline adherence during preconception and pregnancy: a systematic review. Matern Child Nutr 2020; 16 (02) e12916-e12916
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 134 Du Y, Liu B, Sun Y, Snetselaar LG, Wallace RB, Bao W. Trends in adherence to the physical activity guidelines for Americans for aerobic activity and time spent on sedentary behavior among US adults, 2007 to 2016. JAMA Netw Open 2019; 2 (07) e197597-e197597
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 135 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). Insufficient physical activity. Web report Cat. no: PHE 248 [online]. Accessed September 23, /2020 at: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/risk-factors/insufficient-physical-activity/contents/physical-inactivity
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 136 National Health Service (NHS) Digital. Statistics on Obesity, Physical Activity and Diet, England, 2020. Part 5: Physical activity [online]. . Accessed September 23, 2020 at: https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/statistics-on-obesity-physical-activity-and-diet/england-2020/part-5-adult-physical-activity-copy
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 137 Hesketh KR, Evenson KR. Prevalence of U.S. pregnant women meeting 2015 ACOG physical activity guidelines. Am J Prev Med 2016; 51 (03) e87-e89
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 138 Richardsen KR, Falk RS, Jenum AK. et al. Predicting who fails to meet the physical activity guideline in pregnancy: a prospective study of objectively recorded physical activity in a population-based multi-ethnic cohort. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2016; 16 (01) 186-186
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 139 Broberg L, Ersbøll AS, Backhausen MG, Damm P, Tabor A, Hegaard HK. Compliance with national recommendations for exercise during early pregnancy in a Danish cohort. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2015; 15: 317-317
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 140 Stephenson J, Heslehurst N, Hall J. et al. Before the beginning: nutrition and lifestyle in the preconception period and its importance for future health. Lancet 2018; 391 (10132): 1830-1841
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 141 Barker M, Dombrowski SU, Colbourn T. et al. Intervention strategies to improve nutrition and health behaviours before conception. Lancet 2018; 391 (10132): 1853-1864
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 142 Goldstein RF, Abell SK, Ranasinha S. et al. Association of gestational weight gain with maternal and infant outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2017; 317 (21) 2207-2225
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 143 Crozier SR, Robinson SM, Godfrey KM, Cooper C, Inskip HM. Women's dietary patterns change little from before to during pregnancy. J Nutr 2009; 139 (10) 1956-1963
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 144 Djossinou DRA, Savy M, Fanou-Fogny N. et al. Changes in women's dietary diversity before and during pregnancy in Southern Benin. Matern Child Nutr 2020; 16 (02) e12906
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 145 Owe KM, Nystad W, Bø K. Correlates of regular exercise during pregnancy: the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2009; 19 (05) 637-645
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 146 Grol R, Wensing M. What drives change? Barriers to and incentives for achieving evidence-based practice. Med J Aust 2004; 180 (S6): S57-S60
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 147 Eccles M, Grimshaw J, Walker A, Johnston M, Pitts N. Changing the behavior of healthcare professionals: the use of theory in promoting the uptake of research findings. J Clin Epidemiol 2005; 58 (02) 107-112
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 148 Wensing M, Grol R. Knowledge translation in health: how implementation science could contribute more. BMC Med 2019; 17 (01) 88
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 149 Goossens J, De Roose M, Van Hecke A, Goemaes R, Verhaeghe S, Beeckman D. Barriers and facilitators to the provision of preconception care by healthcare providers: a systematic review. Int J Nurs Stud 2018; 87: 113-130
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 150 Francis JJ, O'Connor D, Curran J. Theories of behaviour change synthesised into a set of theoretical groupings: introducing a thematic series on the theoretical domains framework. Implement Sci 2012; 7: 35
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 151 French SD, Green SE, O'Connor DA. et al. Developing theory-informed behaviour change interventions to implement evidence into practice: a systematic approach using the Theoretical Domains Framework. Implement Sci 2012; 7: 38
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 152 Pearce C, Rychetnik L, Wutzke S, Wilson A. Obesity prevention and the role of hospital and community-based health services: a scoping review. BMC Health Serv Res 2019; 19 (01) 453
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 153 M'hamdi HI, van Voorst SF, Pinxten W, Hilhorst MT, Steegers EA. Barriers in the uptake and delivery of preconception care: exploring the views of care providers. Matern Child Health J 2017; 21 (01) 21-28
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 154 Mazza D, Chapman A, Michie S. Barriers to the implementation of preconception care guidelines as perceived by general practitioners: a qualitative study. BMC Health Serv Res 2013; 13: 36
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 155 McLellan JM, O'Carroll RE, Cheyne H, Dombrowski SU. Investigating midwives' barriers and facilitators to multiple health promotion practice behaviours: a qualitative study using the theoretical domains framework. Implement Sci 2019; 14 (01) 64
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 156 Heslehurst N, Newham J, Maniatopoulos G, Fleetwood C, Robalino S, Rankin J. Implementation of pregnancy weight management and obesity guidelines: a meta-synthesis of healthcare professionals' barriers and facilitators using the Theoretical Domains Framework. Pregnancy Hypertens 2014; 4 (03) 234-235
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 157 Wilkinson SA, Donaldson E, Willcox J. Nutrition and maternal health: a mapping of Australian dietetic services. BMC Health Serv Res 2020; 20 (01) 660
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 158 Poels M, Koster MP, Boeije HR, Franx A, van Stel HF. Why do women not use preconception care? A systematic review on barriers and facilitators. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2016; 71 (10) 603-612
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 159 O'Reilly SL, Dunbar JA, Versace V. et al; MAGDA Study Group. Mothers after gestational diabetes in Australia (MAGDA): a randomised controlled trial of a postnatal diabetes prevention program. PLoS Med 2016; 13 (07) e1002092
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 160 Peacock AS, Bogossian FE, Wilkinson SA, Gibbons KS, Kim C, McIntyre HD. A randomised controlled trial to delay or prevent type 2 diabetes after gestational diabetes: walking for exercise and nutrition to prevent diabetes for you. Int J Endocrinol 2015; 2015: 423717
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 161 Wilkinson SA, Lim SS, Upham S. et al. Who's responsible for the care of women during and after a pregnancy affected by gestational diabetes?. Med J Aust 2014; 201 (3, Suppl): S78-S81
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 162 Nilsen P. Making sense of implementation theories, models and frameworks. Implement Sci 2015; 10: 53
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 163 Bradshaw J. Taxonomy of social need. In: McLachlan G. ed. Problems and Progress in Medical Care: Essays on Current Research. London: Oxford University Press; 1972: 71-82
    Google Scholar
  • 164 O'Brien CM, Grivell RM, Dodd JM. Systematic review of antenatal dietary and lifestyle interventions in women with a normal body mass index. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2016; 95 (03) 259-269
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 165 Gresham E, Bisquera A, Byles JE, Hure AJ. Effects of dietary interventions on pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Matern Child Nutr 2016; 12 (01) 5-23
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 166 Russo LM, Nobles C, Ertel KA, Chasan-Taber L, Whitcomb BW. Physical activity interventions in pregnancy and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 2015; 125 (03) 576-582
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 167 Sanabria-Martínez G, García-Hermoso A, Poyatos-León R, Álvarez-Bueno C, Sánchez-López M, Martínez-Vizcaíno V. Effectiveness of physical activity interventions on preventing gestational diabetes mellitus and excessive maternal weight gain: a meta-analysis. BJOG 2015; 122 (09) 1167-1174
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 168 Bain E, Crane M, Tieu J, Han S, Crowther CA, Middleton P. Diet and exercise interventions for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (04) CD010443
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 169 Madhuvrata P, Govinden G, Bustani R, Song S, Farrell TA. Prevention of gestational diabetes in pregnant women with risk factors for gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. Obstet Med 2015; 8 (02) 68-85
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 170 Rogozińska E, Chamillard M, Hitman GA, Khan KS, Thangaratinam S. Nutritional manipulation for the primary prevention of gestational diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of randomised studies. PLoS One 2015; 10 (02) e0115526
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar