Download PDF
CC BY 4.0 · European Journal of General Dentistry 2024; 13(03): 165-176
DOI: 10.1055/s-0044-1786154
Review Article

Exploring the Interplay: Oral–Gut Microbiome Connection and the Impact of Diet and Nutrition

Sameena Parveen 
1   Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
,
Ahmed Shaher Alqahtani 
1   Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
,
Mohammed Y. Aljabri 
1   Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
,
Tazeen Dawood
2   Department of Preventive Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
,
Samar Saeed Khan
1   Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
,
Bharti Gupta
1   Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
,
Swetha Vempalli
1   Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
,
Ali Abdel-Halim Abdel-Azim Hassan
1   Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
,
Nahid Mahmoud Hassan Elamin
1   Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
› Author Affiliations Funding Source None
› Further Information
Also available at
   Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

The intricate interplay between the oral and intestinal microbiota holds increasing fascination within the context of health and nutrition. Serving as the gateway to the gastrointestinal tract, the oral microbiota hosts a diverse array of microbial species that significantly influence well-being or contribute to various diseases. Dysbiosis in the oral microbiota has been linked to conditions such as dental caries, periodontal diseases, and systemic disorders, including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer's disease, and colorectal cancer. This review aims to comprehend the nuanced relationship between oral and intestinal microbiotas, exploring the pivotal role of diet in developing strategies for wellness promotion and disease prevention. Drawing insights from a myriad of studies encompassing both animals and humans, we examine the implications of microbial dysbiosis and its impact on health. A bibliographic search of 78 scientific articles was conducted across PubMed Central, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and the Saudi digital library from January 2000 to August 2023. Following a rigorous screening process, the full texts of selected articles were critically reviewed to extract relevant information. Articles not meeting the inclusion criteria—specifically focused on oral–intestinal microbiota interaction and diet and nutrition—were meticulously excluded. Diet emerges as a key player in influencing both oral and intestinal microbiotas. Various dietary components, such as fiber, prebiotics, probiotics, and bioactive compounds, have demonstrated significant effects on the diversity and function of microorganisms in these ecosystems. Conversely, diets high in processed foods, added sugars, and saturated fats correlate with dysbiosis and an elevated risk of oral and gastrointestinal diseases. Understanding the intricacies of this interaction is paramount for the development of innovative approaches fostering a balanced oral–gut microbiota axis and improving overall human health. The implications extend to preventive and therapeutic interventions, emphasizing the practical importance of unraveling these complexities for public health and clinical practice. This comprehensive review delves into the intricate relationship between gut and oral microbiota, shedding light on their roles in various diseases, particularly focusing on oral diseases. Key findings are summarized, and implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed. In conclusion, the review underscores the urgent need for special attention to key microbiota in developing targeted interventions for promoting oral and gut health.

Keywords

microbiota - oral health - gut microbiota - dysbiosis - diet - nutrition


Publication History

Article published online:
26 September 2024

© 2024. The Author(s). This is an open access article published by Thieme under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, permitting unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction so long as the original work is properly cited. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Thieme Medical and Scientific Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
A-12, 2nd Floor, Sector 2, Noida-201301 UP, India

 

  • References

  • 1 Sender R, Fuchs S, Milo R. Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body. PLoS Biol 2016; 14 (08) e1002533
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 2 Zhuang ZQ, Shen LL, Li WW. et al. Gut microbiota is altered in patients with Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2018; 63 (04) 1337-1346
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 3 Liu Z, Dai X, Zhang H. et al. Gut microbiota mediates intermittent-fasting alleviation of diabetes-induced cognitive impairment. Nat Commun 2020; 11 (01) 85
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 4 Wang L, Wang S, Zhang Q, He C, Fu C, Wei Q. The role of the gut microbiota in health and cardiovascular diseases. Mol Biomed 2022; 3 (01) 30
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 5 David LA, Maurice CF, Carmody RN. et al. Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome. Nature 2014; 505 (7484): 559-563
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 6 Sonnenburg ED, Smits SA, Tikhonov M, Higginbottom SK, Wingreen NS, Sonnenburg JL. Diet-induced extinctions in the gut microbiota compound over generations. Nature 2016; 529 (7585): 212-215
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 7 Singh RK, Chang HW, Yan D. et al. Influence of diet on the gut microbiome and implications for human health. J Transl Med 2017; 15 (01) 73
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 8 Belkaid Y, Hand TW. Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation. Cell 2014; 157 (01) 121-141
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 9 Cani PD, Van Hul M, Lefort C, Depommier C, Rastelli M, Everard A. Microbial regulation of organismal energy homeostasis. Nat Metab 2019; 1 (01) 34-46
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 10 Schwabe RF, Jobin C. The microbiome and cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2013; 13 (11) 800-812
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 11 Carding S, Verbeke K, Vipond DT, Corfe BM, Owen LJ. Dysbiosis of the gut microbiota in disease. Microb Ecol Health Dis 2015; 26: 26191
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 12 Tilg H, Adolph TE, Gerner RR, Moschen AR. The intestinal microbiota in colorectal cancer. Cancer Cell 2018; 33 (06) 954-964
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 13 Iwauchi M, Horigome A, Ishikawa K. et al. Relationship between oral and gut microbiota in elderly people. Immun Inflamm Dis 2019; 7 (03) 229-236
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 14 Wu N, Yang X, Zhang R. et al. Dysbiosis signature of fecal microbiota in colorectal cancer patients. Microb Ecol 2013; 66 (02) 462-470
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 15 De Filippo C, Cavalieri D, Di Paola M. et al. Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107 (33) 14691-14696
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 16 Yang CY, Yeh YM, Yu HY. et al. Oral microbiota community dynamics associated with oral squamous cell carcinoma staging. Front Microbiol 2018; 9: 862
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 17 Zhang T, Kayani MUR, Hong L. et al. Dynamics of the salivary microbiome during different phases of Crohn's disease. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10: 544704
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 18 Herzberg MC, Nobbs A, Tao L. et al. Oral streptococci and cardiovascular disease: searching for the platelet aggregation-associated protein gene and mechanisms of Streptococcus sanguis-induced thrombosis. J Periodontol 2005; 76 (11, Suppl): 2101-2105
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 19 Lamont RJ, Hajishengallis G. Polymicrobial synergy and dysbiosis in inflammatory disease. Trends Mol Med 2015; 21 (03) 172-183 4
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 20 Honda K, Littman DR. The microbiota in adaptive immune homeostasis and disease. Nature 2016; 535 (7610): 75-84
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 21 Jenkinson HF, Lamont RJ. Oral microbial communities in sickness and in health. Trends Microbiol 2005; 13 (12) 589-595
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 22 Hajishengallis G. Periodontitis: from microbial immune subversion to systemic inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol 2015; 15 (01) 30-44
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 23 Hajishengallis G, Korostoff JM. Revisiting the Page & Schroeder model: the good, the bad and the unknowns in the periodontal host response 40 years later. Periodontol 2000 2017; 75 (01) 116-151
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 24 Kostic AD, Chun E, Robertson L. et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum potentiates intestinal tumorigenesis and modulates the tumor-immune microenvironment. Cell Host Microbe 2013; 14 (02) 207-215
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 25 Han YW. Fusobacterium nucleatum: a commensal-turned pathogen. Curr Opin Microbiol 2015; 23: 141-147
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 26 Twetman S, Stecksén-Blicks C. Probiotics and oral health effects in children. Int J Paediatr Dent 2008; 18 (01) 3-10
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 27 Cagetti MG, Mastroberardino S, Milia E, Cocco F, Lingström P, Campus G. The use of probiotic strains in caries prevention: a systematic review. Nutrients 2013; 5 (07) 2530-2550
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 28 Salazar N, Binetti A, Gueimonde M. et al. Safety and intestinal microbiota modulation by the exopolysaccharide-producing strains Bifidobacterium animalis IPLA R1 and Bifidobacterium longum IPLA E44 orally administered to Wistar rats. Int J Food Microbiol 2011; 144 (03) 342-351
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 29 Arboleya S, Watkins C, Stanton C, Ross RP. Gut bifidobacteria populations in human health and aging. Front Microbiol 2016; 7: 1204
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 30 Shin JH, Chaves-Olarte E, Warren CA. Clostridium difficile infection. Microbiol Spectr 2016; 4 (03)
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 31 Arimatsu K, Yamada H, Miyazawa H. et al. Oral pathobiont induces systemic inflammation and metabolic changes associated with alteration of gut microbiota. Sci Rep 2014; 4: 4828
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 32 Guo XJ, Jiang T, Ma XX. et al. Relationships between diurnal changes of tongue coating microbiota and intestinal microbiota. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12: 813790
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 33 Millen AE, Dahhan R, Freudenheim JL. et al. Dietary carbohydrate intake is associated with the subgingival plaque oral microbiome abundance and diversity in a cohort of postmenopausal women. Sci Rep 2022; 12 (01) 2643
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 34 Pang L, Zhi Q, Jian W, Liu Z, Lin H. The oral microbiome impacts the link between sugar consumption and caries: a preliminary study. Nutrients 2022; 14 (18) 3693
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 35 Wu GD, Chen J, Hoffmann C. et al. Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science 2011; 334 (6052): 105-108
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 36 Duran-Pinedo AE, Frias-Lopez J. Beyond microbial community composition: functional activities of the oral microbiome in health and disease. Microbes Infect 2015; 17 (07) 505-516
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 37 Santonocito S, Polizzi A, Palazzo G, Indelicato F, Isola G. Dietary factors affecting the prevalence and impact of periodontal disease. Clin Cosmet Investig Dent 2021; 13: 283-292
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 38 Rinninella E, Cintoni M, Raoul P. et al. Food components and dietary habits: keys for a healthy gut microbiota composition. Nutrients 2019; 11 (10) 2393
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 39 Turnbaugh PJ, Bäckhed F, Fulton L, Gordon JI. Diet-induced obesity is linked to marked but reversible alterations in the mouse distal gut microbiome. Cell Host Microbe 2008; 3 (04) 213-223
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 40 Stanisic D, Jeremic N, Majumder S. et al. High fat diet dysbiotic mechanism of decreased gingival blood flow. Front Physiol 2021; 12: 625780
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 41 den Besten G, van Eunen K, Groen AK, Venema K, Reijngoud DJ, Bakker BM. The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism. J Lipid Res 2013; 54 (09) 2325-2340
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 42 Canfora EE, Jocken JW, Blaak EE. Short-chain fatty acids in control of body weight and insulin sensitivity. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2015; 11 (10) 577-591
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 43 O'Grady J, O'Connor EM, Shanahan F. Review article: dietary fibre in the era of microbiome science. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2019; 49 (05) 506-515
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 44 Clemente JC, Pehrsson EC, Blaser MJ. et al. The microbiome of uncontacted Amerindians. Sci Adv 2015; 1 (03) e1500183
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 45 Yatsunenko T, Rey FE, Manary MJ. et al. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature 2012; 486 (7402): 222-227
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 46 De Filippo C, Di Paola M, Ramazzotti M. et al. Diet, environments, and gut microbiota. a preliminary investigation in children living in rural and urban Burkina Faso and Italy. Front Microbiol 2017; 8: 1979
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 47 Martínez I, Stegen JC, Maldonado-Gómez MX. et al. The gut microbiota of rural Papua New Guineans: composition, diversity patterns, and ecological processes. Cell Rep 2015; 11 (04) 527-538
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 48 Salonen A, Lahti L, Salojärvi J. et al. Impact of diet and individual variation on intestinal microbiota composition and fermentation products in obese men. ISME J 2014; 8 (11) 2218-2230
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 49 De Filippis F, Pellegrini N, Vannini L. et al. High-level adherence to a Mediterranean diet beneficially impacts the gut microbiota and associated metabolome. Gut 2016; 65 (11) 1812-1821
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 50 Gibson GR, Hutkins R, Sanders ME. et al. Expert consensus document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017; 14 (08) 491-502
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 51 Yasmin A, Butt MS, Afzaal M, van Baak M, Nadeem MT, Shahid MZ. Prebiotics, gut microbiota and metabolic risks: unveiling the relationship. J Funct Foods 2015; 17: 189-201
    CrossrefSearch in Google Scholar
  • 52 Megur A, Daliri EBM, Baltriukienė D, Burokas A. Prebiotics as a tool for the prevention and treatment of obesity and diabetes: classification and ability to modulate the gut microbiota. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23 (11) 6097
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 53 Davani-Davari D, Negahdaripour M, Karimzadeh I. et al. Prebiotics: definition, types, sources, mechanisms, and clinical applications. Foods 2019; 8 (03) 92
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 54 Slavin J. Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients 2013; 5 (04) 1417-1435
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 55 Mazziotta C, Tognon M, Martini F, Torreggiani E, Rotondo JC. Probiotics mechanism of action on immune cells and beneficial effects on human health. Cells 2023; 12 (01) 184
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 56 Hill C, Guarner F, Reid G. et al. Expert consensus document. The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics consensus statement on the scope and appropriate use of the term probiotic. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014; 11 (08) 506-514
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 57 Reid G. The development of probiotics for women's health. Can J Microbiol 2017; 63 (04) 269-277
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 58 Luo B, Wen Y, Ye F. et al. Bioactive phytochemicals and their potential roles in modulating gut microbiota. J Agric Food Res 2023; 12: 100583
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 59 Sabra A, Netticadan T, Wijekoon C. Grape bioactive molecules, and the potential health benefits in reducing the risk of heart diseases. Food Chem X 2021; 12: 100149
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 60 Corrêa TA, Rogero MM. Polyphenols regulating microRNAs and inflammation biomarkers in obesity. Nutrition 2019; 59: 150-157
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 61 Tomé-Carneiro J, Larrosa M, Yáñez-Gascón MJ. et al. One-year supplementation with a grape extract containing resveratrol modulates inflammatory-related microRNAs and cytokines expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of type 2 diabetes and hypertensive patients with coronary artery disease. Pharmacol Res 2013; 72: 69-82
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 62 Graves DT, Corrêa JD, Silva TA. The oral microbiota is modified by systemic diseases. J Dent Res 2019; 98 (02) 148-156
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 63 Lu M, Xuan S, Wang Z. Oral microbiota: a new view of body health. Food Sci Hum Well 2019; 8 (01) 8-15
    CrossrefSearch in Google Scholar
  • 64 Parveen S. Impact of calorie restriction and intermittent fasting on periodontal health. Periodontol 2000 2021; 87 (01) 315-324
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 65 Mohanty R, Asopa SJ, Joseph MD. et al. Red complex: polymicrobial conglomerate in oral flora: a review. J Family Med Prim Care 2019; 8 (11) 3480-3486
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 66 Parveen S, Qahtani ASA, Halboub E. et al. Periodontal-systemic disease: a study on medical practitioners' knowledge and practice. Int Dent J 2023; 73 (06) 854-861
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 67 Lin D, Yang L, Wen L, Lu H, Chen Q, Wang Z. Crosstalk between the oral microbiota, mucosal immunity, and the epithelial barrier regulates oral mucosal disease pathogenesis. Mucosal Immunol 2021; 14 (06) 1247-1258
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 68 Du GH, Wang YF, Chen JJ, Deng YW, Han XZ, Tang GY. Potential association between Fusobacterium nucleatum enrichment on oral mucosal surface and oral lichen planus. Oral Dis 2020; 26 (01) 122-130
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 69 Al-Hebshi NN, Nasher AT, Maryoud MY. et al. Inflammatory bacteriome featuring Fusobacterium nucleatum and Pseudomonas aeruginosa identified in association with oral squamous cell carcinoma. Sci Rep 2017; 7 (01) 1834
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 70 Lim Y, Fukuma N, Totsika M, Kenny L, Morrison M, Punyadeera C. The performance of an oral microbiome biomarker panel in predicting oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8: 267
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 71 Parveen S, Taneja N, Bathi RJ, Deka AC. Evaluation of circulating immune complexes and serum immunoglobulins in oral cancer patients–a follow up study. Indian J Dent Res 2010; 21 (01) 10-15
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 72 Paroni Sterbini F, Palladini A, Masucci L. et al. Effects of proton pump inhibitors on the gastric mucosa-associated microbiota in dyspeptic patients. Appl Environ Microbiol 2016; 82 (22) 6633-6644
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 73 Hsieh YY, Tung SY, Pan HY. et al. Increased abundance of clostridium and fusobacterium in gastric microbiota of patients with gastric cancer in Taiwan. Sci Rep 2018; 8 (01) 158
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 74 Alhazmi YA, Parveen S, Alfaifi WH. et al. Assessment of knowledge, attitude and practice of diabetic patients towards oral health: a cross-sectional study. World J Dent 2022; 13 (03) 239-244
    CrossrefSearch in Google Scholar
  • 75 Gevers D, Kugathasan S, Denson LA. et al. The treatment-naive microbiome in new-onset Crohn's disease. Cell Host Microbe 2014; 15 (03) 382-392
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 76 Kitamoto S, Nagao-Kitamoto H, Hein R, Schmidt TM, Kamada N. The bacterial connection between the oral cavity and the gut diseases. J Dent Res 2020; 99 (09) 1021-1029
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 77 Flemer B, Lynch DB, Brown JMR. et al. Tumour-associated and non-tumour-associated microbiota in colorectal cancer. Gut 2017; 66 (04) 633-643
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 78 Mima K, Nishihara R, Qian ZR. et al. Fusobacterium nucleatum in colorectal carcinoma tissue and patient prognosis. Gut 2016; 65 (12) 1973-1980
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 79 Nosho K, Sukawa Y, Adachi Y. et al. Association of Fusobacterium nucleatum with immunity and molecular alterations in colorectal cancer. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22 (02) 557-566
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 80 Olsen I, Yamazaki K. Can oral bacteria affect the microbiome of the gut?. J Oral Microbiol 2019; 11 (01) 1586422
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 81 Parveen S, Alhazmi YA. Impact of intermittent fasting on metabolic syndrome and periodontal disease-a suggested preventive strategy to reduce the public health burden. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2022; 19 (21) 14536
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 82 Bathi RJ, Taneja N, Parveen S. Rheumatoid arthritis of TMJ–a diagnostic dilemma?. Dent Update 2004; 31 (03) 167-170 , 172, 174
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 83 Liu XX, Jiao B, Liao XX. et al. Analysis of salivary microbiome in patients with Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 72 (02) 633-640
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 84 Gaiser RA, Halimi A, Alkharaan H. et al. Enrichment of oral microbiota in early cystic precursors to invasive pancreatic cancer. Gut 2019; 68 (12) 2186-2194
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 85 Poole S, Singhrao SK, Kesavalu L, Curtis MA, Crean S. Determining the presence of periodontopathic virulence factors in short-term postmortem Alzheimer's disease brain tissue. J Alzheimers Dis 2013; 36 (04) 665-677
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 86 Fåk F, Tremaroli V, Bergström G, Bäckhed F. Oral microbiota in patients with atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 2015; 243 (02) 573-578
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 87 Peng X, Cheng L, You Y. et al. Oral microbiota in human systematic diseases. Int J Oral Sci 2022; 14 (01) 14
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 88 Schett G, Redlich K, Xu Q. et al. Enhanced expression of heat shock protein 70 (hsp70) and heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) activation in rheumatoid arthritis synovial tissue. Differential regulation of hsp70 expression and hsf1 activation in synovial fibroblasts by proinflammatory cytokines, shear stress, and antiinflammatory drugs. J Clin Invest 1998; 102 (02) 302-311
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 89 Moen K, Brun JG, Valen M. et al. Synovial inflammation in active rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis facilitates trapping of a variety of oral bacterial DNAs. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2006; 24 (06) 656-663
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 90 Lourenςo TGB, Spencer SJ, Alm EJ, Colombo APV. Defining the gut microbiota in individuals with periodontal diseases: an exploratory study. J Oral Microbiol 2018; 10 (01) 1487741
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 91 Keller MK, Nøhr Larsen I, Karlsson I, Twetman S. Effect of tablets containing probiotic bacteria (Lactobacillus reuteri) on early caries lesions in adolescents: a pilot study. Benef Microbes 2014; 5 (04) 403-407
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 92 Stensson M, Koch G, Coric S. et al. Oral administration of Lactobacillus reuteri during the first year of life reduces caries prevalence in the primary dentition at 9 years of age. Caries Res 2014; 48 (02) 111-117
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 93 Morales A, Carvajal P, Silva N. et al. Clinical effects of lactobacillus rhamnosus in non-surgical treatment of chronic periodontitis: a randomized placebo-controlled trial with 1-year follow-up. J Periodontol 2016; 87 (08) 944-952
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 94 Iwasaki M, Sato M, Minagawa K, Manz MC, Yoshihara A, Miyazaki H. Longitudinal relationship between metabolic syndrome and periodontal disease among Japanese adults aged ≥70 years: the Niigata Study. J Periodontol 2015; 86 (04) 491-498
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 95 Alanzi A, Honkala S, Honkala E, Varghese A, Tolvanen M, Söderling E. Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Bifidobacterium lactis on gingival health, dental plaque, and periodontopathogens in adolescents: a randomised placebo-controlled clinical trial. Benef Microbes 2018; 9 (04) 593-602
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 96 Keller MK, Bardow A, Jensdottir T, Lykkeaa J, Twetman S. Effect of chewing gums containing the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus reuteri on oral malodour. Acta Odontol Scand 2012; 70 (03) 246-250
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 97 Suzuki N, Yoneda M, Tanabe K. et al. Lactobacillus salivarius WB21–containing tablets for the treatment of oral malodor: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol 2014; 117 (04) 462-470
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 98 Penala S, Kalakonda B, Pathakota KR. et al. Efficacy of local use of probiotics as an adjunct to scaling and root planing in chronic periodontitis and halitosis: a randomized controlled trial. J Res Pharm Pract 2016; 5 (02) 86-93
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 99 Saini R, Al-Maweri SA, Saini D, Ismail NM, Ismail AR. Oral mucosal lesions in non oral habit diabetic patients and association of diabetes mellitus with oral precancerous lesions. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2010; 89 (03) 320-326
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 100 Homayouni Rad A, Pourjafar H, Mirzakhani E. A comprehensive review of the application of probiotics and postbiotics in oral health. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13: 1120995
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar