Zusammenfassung.
Die Therapie des prolongierten akuten Nierenversagens erfordert im Regelfall ein Nierenersatzverfahren. Hierzu stehen verschiedene extrakorporale Nierenersatzverfahren sowie die Peritonealdialyse zur Verfügung. Die extrakorporalen Nierenersatzverfahren werden auf Grund des angewandten physikalischen Prinzips der Toxinelimination in Hämodialyse (Diffusion) und Hämofiltration (Konvektion) eingeteilt. Außerdem ist zwischen intermittierenden und kontinuierlichen Verfahren zu unterscheiden. Unter dem Aspekt der Aktivierung des Immunsystems werden biokompatible und bioinkompatible Membranen unterschieden. Prospektiv-randomisierte Studien an großen Patientengruppen haben die auf Grund theoretischer Überlegungen vermuteten Vorteile spezieller Vorgehensweisen in wesentlichen Punkten nicht bestätigen können. Letalität, Dauer und Folgekomplikationen des akuten Nierenversagens werden durch Verwendung biokompatibler Membranen nicht gesenkt. Eine Überlegenheit kontinuierlicher Nierenersatzverfahren besteht nicht grundsätzlich, sondern lediglich bei hämodynamisch instabilen Patienten, bei denen sie eine optimale Steuerung des Flüssigkeitshaushaltes und damit des arteriellen Blutdruckes gewährleisten. Aufwendige Hämofiltrationstechniken zur Zytokinelimination können auf Grund mangelhafter Selektivität und des bisher fehlenden Nachweises eines klinischen Nutzens derzeit noch nicht empfohlen werden. Die Bedeutung der „Intensität” des Eliminationsverfahrens und der optimale Zeitpunkt des Therapiebeginns sind nicht hinreichend geklärt. Die Wahl des Nierenersatzverfahrens richtet sich nach klinischer Indikation (Kriterium: hämodynamische Situation), Praktikabilität (Kriterien: Verfügbarkeit des Gerätes und Schulung des Personals) sowie Kostenaspekten. Der Verwendung neuer und kostspieliger apparativer Modalitäten und Membrantypen sollte eine klinische Prüfung ihres Nutzens unter Berücksichtigung wichtiger Zielgrößen wie Überleben und Erhalt der Nierenfunktion vorangehen.
Acute Renal Failure: Extracorporal RenaI Replacement Therapy and Peritoneal Dialysis.
Therapy of prolonged acute renal failure regularly requires a renal replacement therapy. This can be achieved by different extracorporal renal replacement therapies (ERRT) or by peritoneal dialysis. ERRT are classified according to the physical principle underlying toxin elimination as hemodialysis (diffusion) and hemofiltration (convection). Another classification refers to intermittent or continuous application modes. Biocompatibility of membranes is judged according to their activation of the complement system. Prospective randomized studies did not consolidate the assumptions about the benefit of particular modalities proposed on theoretical foundations. Mortality, duration and complication rates of acute renal failure are not significantly decreased by use of biocompatible membranes. Continuous modalities are not generally preferable but optimize treatment in hemodynamically unstable patients, in whom they endorse fluid balancing and maintenance of sufficient arterial blood pressure. The use of demanding hemofiltration techniques for cytokine removal should be limited to clinical studies. The effects of ERRT-“intensity” and the best timing for initiation of ERRT have not been evaluated sufficiently. The choice of the ERRT modality is subject to clinical judgement (criterion: hemodynamic situation), practical aspects (criteria: availability of equipment and handling experience), and costs. Prior to their general use new and expensive technical modalities and membrane types should be thoroughly evaluated in studies with regard to outcome-related aspects such as patient survival and preservation of renal function.
Schlüsselwörter:
Akutes Nierenversagen - Extrakorporale Nierenersatzverfahren - Hämodialyse - Hämofiltration - Peritonealdialyse
Key words:
Acute renal failure - Extracorporal renal replacement therapy - Hemodialysis - Hemofiltration - Peritoneal dialysis
Literatur
1
Manns M, Sigler M H, Teehan B P.
Continuous renal replacement therapies: an update.
Am J Kidney Dis.
1998;
32
185-207
2
Schaffartzik W, Spies C.
Nierenersatzverfahren in der Intensivinedizin.
Anaesthesist.
1996;
45
473-491
3
Ronco C, Bellomo P, Hensel M.
Continuous “high flux” dialysis: an effective renal replacement therapy for intensive care patients.
Zentralbl Chir.
1997;
122
378-382
4
Ronco C, Bellomo R.
Quo vadis CRRT?.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1998;
66
S 190-191
5
Ronco C, Bellomo R.
Continuous renal replacement therapy: evolution in technology and current nomenclature.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1998;
66
S160-164
6
Forni L G, Hilton P J.
Continuous hemofiltration in the treatment of acute renal failure.
N Engl J Med.
1997;
336
1303-1309
7
Quellhorst E, Hildebrand U, Solf A.
Long-term morbidity: hemofiltration vs. hemodialysis.
Contrib Nephrol.
1995;
113
110-119
8
Davison A M.
Towards long-term dialysis: a personal view.
Artif Organs.
1999;
23
6-9
9
Charra B, Laurent G, Chazot C, Jean G, Terrat J C, Vanel T.
Hemodialysis trends in time, 1989 to 1998, independent of dose and outcome.
Am J Kidney Dis.
1998;
32
S63-70
10
Harris S A, Brown E A.
Patients surviving more than 10 years on haemodialysis. The natural history of the complications of treatment.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1998;
13
1226-1233
11
Shaldon S.
Adequacy of long-term hemodialysis.
Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens.
1992;
1
197-202
12
Kramer P, Wigger W, Rieger J, Matthaei D, Scheler F.
Arteriovenous haemofiltration: A new and simple method for the treatment of over-hydrated patients resistant to diuretics.
Klin Wochenschr.
1977;
55
1121-1122
13
Jeffrey R F, Khan A A, Prabhu P, Todd N, Goutcher E, Will E J, Davison A M.
A comparison of molecular clearance rates during continuous hemofiltration and hemodialysis with a novel volumetric continuous renal replacement system.
Artif Organs.
1994;
18
425-428
14
Mault J R, Dechert R E, Lees P, Swartz R D, Port F K, Bartlett R H.
Continuous arteriovenous filtration: an effective treatment for surgical acute renal failure.
Surgery.
1987;
101
478-484
15
Gibney R T, Stollery D E, Lefebvre R E, Sharun O, Chan P.
Continuous arteriovenous hemodialysis: an alternative therapy for acute renal failure associated with critical illness.
CMAJ.
1988;
139
861-866
16
Weiss L, Danielson B G, Wikstrom B, Hedstrand U, Wahlberg J.
Continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration in the treatment of 100 critically ill patients with acute renal failure: report on clinical outcome and nutritional aspects.
Clin Nephrol.
1989;
31
184-189
17
Bellomo K, Ernest D, Love J, Parkin G, Boyce N.
Continuous arteriovenous haemodiafitration: optimal therapy for acute renal failure in an intensive care setting?.
Aust N Z J Med.
1990;
2
237-242
18
Tominaga G T, Ingegno M, Ceraldi C, Waxman K.
Vascular complications of continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration in trauma patients.
J Trauma.
1993;
35
285-288
19
Alarabi A A, Ronco C, Brendolan A, Raimondi F, Wikstrom B, Danielson B G.
Treatment of acute renal failure in intensive care patients by continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration (CAVH): two years' experience in two centres.
Ups J Med Sci.
1995;
100
143-149
20
Wendon J, Smithies M, Sheppard M, Bullen K, Tinker J, Bihari D.
Continuous high volume venousvenous haemofiltration in acute renal failure.
Intensive Care Med.
1989;
15
358-363
21
Macias W L, Mueller B A, Scarim S K, Robinson M, Rudy D W.
Continuous venovenous hemofiltration: an alternative to continuous artenovenous hemofiltration and hemodiafiltration in acute renal failure.
Am J Kidney Dis.
1991;
18
451-458
22
Journois D, Safran D.
Continuous hemofiltration: an extrarenal filtration method used in intensive care.
Ann Fr Anesth Reanim.
1991;
10
379-389
23
Yagi N, Paganini E P.
Acute dialysis and continuous renal replacement: the emergence of new technology involving the nephrologist in the intensive care setting.
Semin Nephrol.
1997;
17
306-320
24
Hamel M B, Phillips R S, Davis R B, Desbiens N, Connors A F, Teno J M, Wenger N, Lynn J, Wu A W, Fulkerson W, Tsevat J.
Outcomes and cost-effectiveness of initiating dialysis and continuing aggressive care in seriously ill hospitalized adults. SUPPORT Investigators. Study to Understand Prognoses and Preferences for Outcomes and Risks of Treatments.
Ann Intern Med.
1997;
127
195-202
25
Lameire N, Van Biesen W, Vanholder R.
Dialysing the patient with acute renal failure in the ICU: the emperor's clothes?.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1999;
14
2570-2573
26
Lieberthal W.
Biology of ischemic and toxic renal tubular cell injury: role of nitric oxide and the inflammatory response.
Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens.
1998;
7
289-295
27
van der Veen A H, Seynhaeve A L, Breurs J, Nooijen P T, Marquet R L, Eggermont A M.
In vivo isolated kidney perfusion with tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) in tumour-bearing rats.
Br J Cancer.
1999;
79
433-439
28
Koltai M, Pirotzky E, Braquet P.
PAF-cytokine autocatalytic feed-back network in septic shock: involvement in acute renal failure.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1994;
9
69-72
29
Hilton D J.
Negative regulators of cytokine signal transduction.
Cell Mol Life Sci.
1999;
55
1568-1577
30
Mamane Y, Heylbroeck C, Genin P, Algarte M, Servant M J, LePage C, DeLuca C, Kwon H, Lin R, Hiscott J.
Interferon regulatory factors: the next generation.
Gene.
1999;
237
1-14
31
Lukacs N W, Hogaboam C, Campbell E, Kunkel S L.
Chemokines: function, regulation and alteration of inflammatory responses.
Chem Immunol.
1999;
72
102-120
32
Ronco C, Bellomo R.
Basic mechanisms and definitions for continuous renal replacement therapies.
Int J Artif Organs.
1996;
19
95-99
33
Bellomo P, Tipping P, Boyce N.
Continuous veno-venous hemofiltration with dialysis removes cytokines from the circulation of septic patients.
Crit Care Med.
1993;
21
522-526
34
Sieberth H G, Kierdorf B P.
Is cytokine removal by continuous hemofiltration feasible?.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1999;
72
S79-83
35
Heering P, Morgera S, Schmitz F J, Schmitz G, Willers R, Schultheiss H P, Strauer B E, Grabensee B.
Cytokine removal and cardiovascular hemodynamics in septic patients with continuous venovenous hemofiltration.
Intensive Care Med.
1997;
23
288-296
36
Sander A, Armbruster W, Sander B, Daul A E, Lange R, Peters J.
Hemofiltration increases IL-6 clearance in early systemic inflammatory response syndrome but does not alter IL- 6 and TNF alpha plasma concentrations.
Intensive Care Med.
1997;
23
878-884
37
Bellomo R, Tipping P, Boyce N.
Interleukin- 6 and interleukin-8 extraction during continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration in septic acute renal failure.
Ren Fail.
1995;
17
457-466
38
De Vriese A S, Colardyn F A, Philippe J J, Vanholder R C, De Sutter J H, Lameire N H.
Cytokine removal during continuous hemofiltration in septic patients.
J Am Soc Nephrol.
1999;
10
846-853
39
Schetz M.
Non-renal indications for continuous renal replacement therapy.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1999;
72
S88-94
40
Ronco C, Brendolan A, Bellomo R.
Continuous versus intermittent renal replacement therapy in the treatment of acute renal failure.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1998;
13
79-85
41
Ronco C, Bellomo R.
Critical care in nephrology: the time has come.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1998;
13
264-267
42
Roneo C, Ghezzi P, Bellomo R, Brendolan A.
New perspectives in the treatment of acute renal failure.
Blood Purif.
1999;
17
166-172
43
Bellomo R, Ronco C.
Continuous renal replacement therapy: continuous blood purification in the intensive care unit.
Ann Acad Med Singapore.
1998;
27
426-429
44
Bellomo R, Ronco C.
Indications and criteria for initiating renal replacement therapy in the intensive care unit.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1998;
66
S106-109
45
Camussi G, Ronco C, Montrucchio G, Piccoli G.
Role of soluble mediators in sepsis and renal failure.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1998;
66
S38-42
46
Zucchelli P, Santoro A.
Dialysis-induced hypotension: a fresh look at pathophysiology.
Blood Purif.
1993;
11
85-98
47
Sandroni S, Arora N, Powell B.
Performance characteristics of contemporary hemodialysis and venovenous hemofiltration in acute renal failure.
Ren Fail.
1992;
14
571-574
48
Abuelo J, Shemin D, JA C.
Acute symptoms produced by hemodialysis: a review of their causes and associations.
Semin Dial.
1993;
6
59-69
49
Bellomo R, Parkin G, Love J, Boyce N.
Use of continuous haemodiafiltration: an approach to the management of acute renal failure in the critically ill.
Am J Nephrol.
1992;
12
240-245
50
Misset B, Timsit M, Chevret S, Renaud B, Tamion F, Carlet J.
A randomized cross-over comparison of the hemodynamic response to intermittent hemodialysis and continuous hemofiltration in ICU patients with acute renal failure.
Intensive Care Med.
1996;
22
742-746
51
Conger J.
Does hemodialysis delay recovery from acute renal failure?.
Semin Dial.
1990;
3
146-148
52
Manns M, Sigler M H, Teehan B P.
Intradialytic renal haemodynamics - potential consequences for the management of the patient with acute renal failure.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1997;
12
870-872
53
Friedrichsohn C, Pollak A, Fischer F, Kohler H, Riegel W.
Comparison between continuous venovenous and intermittent hemodialysis in acute renal failure.
Contrib Nephrol.
1995;
116
34-37
54
Keshaviah P R, Nolph K D, Van Stone J C.
The peak concentration hypothesis: a urea kinetic approach to comparing the adequacy of continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) and hemodialysis.
Perit Dial Int.
1989;
9
257-260
55
Ronco C.
Continuous renal replacement therapies in the treatment of acute renal failure in intensive care patients. Part 2. Clinical indications and prescription.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1994;
9
201-209
56
Davenport A, Will E J, Davidson A M.
Improved cardiovascular stability during continuous modes of renal replacement therapy in critically ill patients with acute hepatic and renal failure.
Crit Care Med.
1993;
21
328-338
57
Bellomo R, Mansfield D, Rumble S, Shapiro J, Parkin G, Boyce N.
Acute renal failure in critical illness. Conventional dialysis versus acute continuous hemodiafiltration.
Asaio J.
1992;
38
M654-657
58
Bellomo R, Farmer M, Parkin G, Wright C, Boyce N.
Severe acute renal failure: a comparison of acute continuous hemodiafiltration and conventional dialytic therapy.
Nephron.
1995;
71
59-64
59
Ronco C, Bellomo R, Brendolan A, Pinna V, La Greca G.
Brain density changes during renal replacement in critically ill patients with acute renal failure. Continuous hemofiltration versus intermittent hemodialysis.
J Nephrol.
1999;
12
173-178
60
Swartz R D, Messana J M, Orzol S, Port F K.
Comparing continuous hemofiltration with hemodialysis in patients with severe acute renal failure.
Am J Kidney Dis.
1999;
34
424-432
61
Knaus W A, Draper E A, Wagner D P, Zimmerman J E.
APACHE II: a severity of disease classification system.
Crit Care Med.
1985;
13
818-829
62
Radovic M, Ostric V, Djukanovic L.
Validity of prediction scores in acute renal failure due to polytrauma.
Ren Fail.
1996;
18
615-620
63
Halstenberg W K, Goormastic M, Paganini E P.
Validity of four models for predicting outcome in critically ill acute renal failure patients.
Clin Nephrol.
1997;
47
81-86
64
van Bommel E F, Bouvy N D, Hop W C, Bruining H A, Welmar W.
Use of APACHE II classification to evaluate outcome and response to therapy in acute renal failure patients in a surgical intensive care unit.
Ren Fail.
1995;
17
731-742
65
Himmelfarb J, Tolkoff Rubin N, Chandran P, Parker R A, Wingard R L, Hakim R.
A multicenter comparison of dialysis membranes in the treatment of acute renal failure requiring dialysis.
J Am Soc Nephrol.
1998;
9
257-266
66
Rutledge R, Fakhry S M, Rutherford E J, Muakkassa F, Baker C C, Koruda M, Meyer A A.
Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE II) score and outcome in the surgical intensive care unit: an analysis of multiple intervention and outcome variables in 1,238 patients.
Crit Care Med.
1991;
19
1048-1053
67
Bullock M L, Umen A J, Finkelstein M, Keane W F.
The assessment of risk factors in 462 patients with acute renal failure.
Am J Kidney Dis.
1985;
5
97-103
68
Rasmussen H H, Pitt E A, Ibels L S, McNeil D R.
Prediction of outcome in acute renal failure by discriminant analysis of clinical variables.
Arch Intern Med.
1985;
145
2015-2018
69
Lohr J W, McFarlane M J, Grantham J J.
A clinical index to predict survival in acute renal failure patients requiring dialysis.
Am J Kidney Dis.
1988;
11
254-259
70
Liano F, Gallego A, Pascual J, Garcia-Martin F, Teruel J L, Marcen R, Orofino L, Orte L, Rivera M, Gallego N. et al .
Prognosis of acute tubular necrosis: an extended prospectively contrasted study.
Nephron.
1993;
63
21-31
71
Paganini E P, Halstenberg W K, Goormastic M.
Risk modeling in acute renal failure requiring dialysis: the introduction of a new model.
Clin Nephrol.
1996;
46
206-211
72
Mauritz W, Sporn P, Schindler I, Zadrobilek E, Roth E, Appel W.
Acute renal failure in abdominal infection. Comparison of hemodialysis and continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration.
Anasth Intensivther Notfallmed.
1986;
21
212-217
73
McDonald B R, Mehta R L.
Decreased mortality in patients with acute renal failure undergoing continuous arteriovenous hemodialysis.
Contrib Nephrol.
1991;
93
51-56
74
Kruczynski K, Irvine-Bird K, Toffelmire E B, Morton A R.
A comparison of continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration and intermittent hemodialysis in acute renal failure patients in the intensive care unit.
Asaio J.
1993;
39
M778-781
75
van Bommel E, Bouvy N D, So K L, Zietse P, Vincent H H, Bruining H A, Weimar W.
Acute dialytic support for the critically ill: intermittent hemodialysis versus continuous arteriovenous hemodiafiltration.
Am J Nephrol.
1995;
15
192-200
76
van Bommel E F.
Are continuous therapies superior to intermittent haemodialysis for acute renal failure on the intensive care unit?.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1995;
10
311-314
77
van Bommel E F, Bouvy N D, So K L, Vincent H H, Zietse R, Bruining H A, Weimar W.
High-risk surgical acute renal failure treated by continuous artenovenous hemodiafiltration: metabolic control and outcome in sixty patients.
Nephron.
1995;
70
185-192
78
van Bommel E F, Ponssen H H.
Intermittent versus continuous treatment for acute renal failure: where do we stand.
Am J Kidney Dis.
1997;
30
S72-79
79
Kierdorf H.
Continuous versus intermittent treatment: clinical results in acute renal failure.
Contrib Nephrol.
1991;
93
1-12
80
Kierdorf H, Sieberth H G.
Continuous treatment modalities in acute renal failure.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1995;
10
2001-2008
81
Rialp G, Roglan A, Betbese A J, Pertz-Marquez M, Ballus J, Lopez-Velarde G, Santos J A, Bak E, Net A.
Prognostic indexes and mortality in critically ill patients with acute renal failure treated with different dialytic techniques.
Ren Fail.
1996;
18
667-675
82
Mehta R L.
Continuous renal replacement therapies in the acute renal failure setting: current concepts.
Adv Ren Replace Ther.
1997;
4
81-92
83
Mehta R L, Letteri M.
Current status of renal replacement therapy for acute renal failure. A survey of US nephrologists. The National Kidney Foundation Council on Dialysis.
Am J Nephrol.
1999;
19
377-382
84
Bellomo R, Ronco C.
Continuous versus intermittent renal replacement therapy in the intensive care unit.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1998;
66
S125-128
85
Bellomo R, Ronco C.
Continuous renal replacement therapy in the intensive care unit.
Intensive Care Med.
1999;
25
781-789
86
Ronco C, Bellomo R.
Acute renal failure in patients with kidney transplant: continuous versus intermittent renal replacement therapy.
Ren Fail.
1996;
18
461-470
87
Strasser T, Schiffl H.
Generation of leukotriene B4 by hemodialyzer membranes: a novel index of biocompatibility.
Klin Wochenschr.
1991;
69
808-812
88
Schulman G.
A review of the concept of blocompatibility.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1993;
41
S209-212
89
Bonomini V, Coli L, Feliciangeli G, Nanni Costa A, Scolari M P.
Long-term comparative evaluation of synthetic and cellulosic membranes in dialysis.
Int J Artif Organs.
1994;
17
392-398
90
Bonomini V, Coli L, Scolari M P, Stefoni S.
Structure of dialysis membranes and long-term clinical outcome.
Am J Nephrol.
1995;
15
455-462
91
Shaldon S, Koch K M.
Biocompatibility in hemodialysis: clinical relevance in 1995.
Artif Organs.
1995;
19
395-397
92
Locatelli F.
Influence of membranes on morbidity.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1996;
11
116-120
93
Hakim R M, Wingard R L, Parker R A.
Effect of the dialysis membrane in the treatment of patients with acute renal failure.
N Engl J Med.
1994;
331
1338-1342
94
Schulman G, Hakim R.
Hemodialysis membrane biocompatibility in acute renal failure.
Adv Ren Replace Ther.
1994;
1
75-82
95
Schiffl H, Sitter T, Lang S, Konig A, Haider M, Held E.
Bioincompatible membranes place patients with acute renal failure at increased risk of infection.
Asaio J.
1995;
41
M709-712
96
Krediet R T.
Biocompatibility of haemodialysis membranes: it matters in acute renal failure.
Neth J Med.
1995;
47
205-207
97
Valeri A, Radhakrishnan J, Ryan R, Powell D.
Biocompatible dialysis membranes and acute renal failure: a study in post-operative acute tubular necrosis in cadaveric renal transplant recipients.
Clin Nephrol.
1996;
46
402-409
98
Himmelfarb J, Hakim R M.
Dialysis membrane biocompatibility and mortality and morbidity in acute renal failure.
J Nephrol.
1997;
10
63-64
99
Himmelfarb J, Hakim R M.
The use of biocompatible dialysis membranes in acute renal failure.
Adv Ren Replace Ther.
1997;
4
72-80
100
Manzoni C, Locatelli F.
Biocompatibility of PMMA membranes in acute and chronic patients with renal failure.
Contrib Nephrol.
1999;
125
65-75
101
Romao J E, Abensur H, de Castro M C, lanhez L E, Massola V C, Sabbaga E.
Effect of dialyser biocompatibility on recovery from acute renal failure after cadaver renal transplantation.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1999;
14
709-712
102
Jorres A, Gahl G M, Dobis C, Polenakovic M H, Cakalaroski K, Rutkowski B, Kisielnicka E, Krieter D H, Rumpf K W, Guenther C, Gaus W, Hoegel J.
Haemodialysis-membrane biocompatibility and mortality of patients with dialysis-dependent acute renal failure: a prospective randomised multicentre trial.International Multicentre Study Group.
Lancet.
1999;
354
1337-1341
103
Pascual M, Swinford R D, Tolkoff-Rubin N.
Acute renal failure: role of dialysis membrane biocompatibility.
Annu Rev Med.
1997;
48
467-476
104
Vanholder R, Lameire N.
Does biocompatibility of dialysis membranes affect recovery of renal function and survival?.
Lancet.
1999;
354
1316-1318
105
Teschan P E, Baxter C R, O'Brien T F, Freyhof J N, Hall W M.
Prophylactic hemodialysis in the treatment of acute renal failure.
J Am Soc Nephrol.
1998;
9
2384-2397
106
Easterling R E, Forland M.
A five year experience with prophylactic dialysis for acute renal failure.
Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs.
1964;
10
200-208
107
Champion H, Sacco W, Long W, Nyikos P, Smith H, Cowley R A, Gill W.
Indications for early haemodialysis in multiple trauma.
Lancet.
1974;
1
1125-1127
108
Gillum D M, Dixon B S, Yanover M J, Kelleher S P, Shapiro M D, Benedetti R G, Dillingham M A, Paller M S, Goldberg J P, Tomford R C. et al .
The role of intensive dialysis in acute renal failure.
Clin Nephrol.
1986;
25
249-255
109
Kleinknecht D, Jungers P, Chanard J, Barbanel C, Ganeval D, Rondon-Nucete M.
Factors influencing immediate prognosis in acute renal failure, with special reference to prophylactic hemodialysis.
Adv Nephrol Necker Hosp.
1971;
1
207-230
110
Gettings L G, Reynolds H N, Scalea T.
Outcome in post-traumatic acute renal failure when continuous renal replacement therapy is applied early vs. late.
Intensive Care Med.
1999;
25
805-813
111
Kresse S, Schlee H, Deuber H J, Koall W, Osten B.
Influence of renal replacement therapy on outcome of patients with acute renal failure.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1999;
72
S75-78
112
Clark W R, Ronco C.
Renal replacement therapy in acute renal failure: solute removal mechanisms and dose quantification.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1998;
66
S133-137
113
Sigler M H.
Transport characteristics of the slow therapies: implications for achieving adequacy of dialysis in acute renal failure.
Adv Ren Replace Ther.
1997;
4
68-80
114
Evanson J A, Ikizler T A, Wingard R, Knights S, Shyr Y, Schulman G, Himmelfarb J, Hakim R M.
Measurement of the delivery of dialysis in acute renal failure.
Kidney Int.
1999;
55
1501-1508
115
Depner T A.
Quantifying hemodialysis.
Am J Nephrol.
1996;
16
17-28
116
Kanagasundaram N S, Paganini E P.
Critical care dialysis - a Gordian knot (but is untying the right approach?).
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1999;
14
2590-2594
117
Clark W R, Mueller B A, Kraus M A, Macias W L.
Extracorporeal therapy requirements for patients with acute renal failure.
J Am Soc Nephrol.
1997;
8
804-812
118
Clark W R, Mueller B A, Kraus M A, Macias W L.
The role of renal replacement therapy quantification in acute renal failure.
Am J Kidney Dis.
1997;
30
S10-14
119
Clark W R, Mueller B A, Kraus M A, Macias W L.
Dialysis prescription and kinetics in acute renal failure.
Adv Ren Replace Ther.
1997;
4
64-71
120
Clark W R, Mueller B A, Kraus M A, Macias W L.
Renal replacement therapy quantification in acute renal failure.
Nephrol Dial Transplant.
1998;
13
86-90
121
Clark W R, Mueller B A, Kraus M A, Macias W L.
Quantification of creatinine kinetic parameters in patients with acute renal failure.
Kidney Int.
1998;
54
554-560
122
Salahudeen A K, Fleischmann E H, Bower J D.
Impact of lower delivered Kt/V on the survival of overweight patients on hemodialysis.
Kidney Int.
1999;
56
2254-2259
123
Leblanc M, Tapolyai M, Paganini E P.
What dialysis dose should be provided in acute renal failure?.
A review Adv Ren Replace Ther.
1995;
2
255-264
124
Friedman A N, Jaber B L.
Dialysis adequacy in patients with acute renal failure.
Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens.
1999;
8
695-700
125
Schlaeper C, Amerling R, Manns M, Levin N W.
High clearance continuous renal replacement therapy with a modified dialysis machine.
Kidney Int Suppl.
1999;
72
S20-23
126
Coles G A, Williams J D.
What is the place of peritoneal dialysis in the integrated treatment of renal failure?.
Kidney Int.
1998;
54
2234-2240
127
Bruns F J, Seddon P, Saul M, Zeidel M L.
The cost of caring for end-stage kidney disease patients: an analysis based on hospital financial transaction records.
J Am Soc Nephrol.
1998;
9
884-890
128
de Wit G A, Rainsteijn P G, de Charro F T.
Economic evaluation of end stage renal disease treatment.
Health Policy.
1998;
44
215-232
129
Bro S, Bjorner J B, Tofte-Jensen P, Klem S, Almtoft B, Danielsen H, Meincke M, Friedberg M, Feldt-Rasmussen B.
A prospective, randomized multicenter study comparing APD and CAPD treatment.
Perit Dial Int.
1999;
19
526-533
130
Parekh R S, Bunchman T E.
Dialysis support in the pediatric intensive care unit.
Adv Ren Replace Ther.
1996;
3
326-336
131
Warady B A, Bunchman T E.
An update on peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis in the pediatric population.
Curr Opin Pediatr.
1996;
8
135-140
132
Bunchman T E.
Acute peritoneal dialysis access in infant renal failure.
Perit Dial Int.
1996;
16
S509-511
133
Ash S R, Bever S L.
Peritoneal dialysis for acute renal failure: the safe, effective, and low-cost modality.
Adv Ren Replace Ther.
1995;
2
160-163
Dr. med. Andrea Gabriel
Institut für Klinische Anaesthesiologie Heinrich-Heine-Universität
Moorenstr. 5
40225 Düsseldorf