The purpose of this study was to describe the personality and mood of former athletes in middle and old age. The subjects were male athletes who represented Finland from 1920 to 1965 and male referents who were classified as healthy at 20 years of age. The athletes were classified into a total of five athlete groups (endurance, power/combat, power/individual, team, shooting) and one reference group. Four personality scales (extroversion, neuroticism, life satisfaction, and hostility) were used in a baseline questionnaire in 1985 (athletes N = 1040, referents N = 777). Anxiety and depression were assessed in a follow-up in 1995 (athletes N = 758, referents N = 578) with a shortened version of the BSI-53 symptom inventory. According to ANCOVA there were group differences in extroversion, neuroticism, and life satisfaction but not in hostility. Athletes who had participated in power/combat sports and team sports were more extroverted than referents. Endurance sport and shooting sport athletes had lower neuroticism scores than the referents. Endurance, power/combat, team and shooting sport athletes were more satisfied with their lives than were the referents. Discriminant analysis mainly supported these findings. Differences regarding depression were also statistically significant between the groups as referents were more depressed than endurance sport and team sport athletes. No group differences in anxiety were found. The subjects described in this study are unique in number of respects. Bearing in mind the limitations of the study subjects, it is concluded that former athletes differ from non-athletes in some personality characteristics and depression.
Key words:
Athlete, mood, personality, sports.
References
-
01 Allardt E. About dimension of welfare: an explanatory analysis of the comparative Scandinavian survey. Research Report 1. Research group for Comparative Sociology. Helsinki, Finland; University of Helsinki 1973
-
02
Appelberg K, Romanov K, Honkasalo ML, Koskenvuo M.
Interpersonal conflicts at work and psychosocial characteristics of employees.
Soc Sci Med.
1991;
32
1051-1056
-
03
Bahrke M S, Morgan W P.
Anxiety reduction following exercise and meditation.
Cognit Ther Res.
1978;
2
323-333
-
04 Berger B G. Running away from anxiety and depression: a female as well as male race. In: Sachs ML, Buffone GW, (eds) Running as therapy, an integrated approach. London; University of Nebraska Press 1984: 138-171
-
05
Byrne A, Byrne D G.
The effect of exercise on depression, anxiety and other mood states: a review.
J Psychosom Res.
1993;
37
565-574
-
06 Cattell R, Eber H, Tatzucka M. Handbook for the sixteen personality factor questionnaire. Champaign, Il; Institute for Personality and Ability Testing 1970
-
07 Central Statistical Office. Alphabetical list of occupations and classification of social class (in Finnish). Helsinki, Finland; Central Statistical Office 1972
-
08 Derogatis L R. The SCL-90 manual I: scoring, administration and procedures for the SCL-90. Baltimore; Clinical Psychometric Research 1977
-
09
Derogatis L R, Melisaratos N.
The brief symptom inventory: an introductory report.
Psychol Med.
1983;
13
595-605
-
10
Dishman R K.
Medical psychology in exercise and sports.
Med Clin North Amer.
1985;
69
123-143
-
11
Egloff B, Gruhn J.
Personality and endurance sports.
Person Indiv Diff.
1996;
21
1223-1229
-
12
Eysenck H J.
Personality and ageing: an exploratory analysis.
J Soc Behav Person.
1987;
3
11-21
-
13
Eysenck H J, Nias D KB, Cox D N.
Sport and personality.
Adv Behav Res Ther.
1982;
4
1-56
-
14
Floderus B.
Psychosocial factors in relation to coronary heart disease and associated risk factors.
Nord Hyg Tidskr.
1974;
6
1-148
-
15
Furnham A.
Personality and demographic determinates of leisure and sports preference and performance.
Int J Sport Psychol.
1990;
21
218-236
-
16
Jasnoski M, Holmes D, Banks D.
Changes in personality associated with changes in aerobic and anaerobic fitness in women and men.
J Psychosom Res.
1988;
32
273-276
-
17
Kirkcaldy B.
Personality profiles at various levels of athletic participation.
Person Indiv Diff.
1982;
3
321-326
-
18 Kirkcaldy B. The value of traits in sports. In: Kirkcaldy B, (ed) Individual differences in movement. Boston; Boston MTP 1985: 257-227
-
19
Kirkcaldy B, Furnham A.
Extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and recreational choice.
Person Indiv Diff.
1991;
12
737-745
-
20 Koivumaa-Honkanen H. Life satisfaction as a health predictor. Academic dissertation. Kuopio, Finland; University of Kuopio 1998
-
21
Korkeila M, Kaprio J, Rissanen A, Koskenvuo M, Sörensen T IA.
Predictors of major weight gain in adult Finns: stress, life satisfaction and personality traits.
Int J Obes.
1998;
22
949-957
-
22
Koskenvuo M, Kaprio J, Rose R, Kesäniemi A, Sarna S, Heikkilä K, Langinvainio H.
Hostility as a risk factor for mortality and ischemic heart disease in men.
Psychosom Med.
1988;
50
330-340
-
23 Koskenvuo M, Langinvainio H, Kaprio J, Rantasalo I, Sarna S. Baseline characteristics of Finnish Twin Registry: section III: occupational and psychosocial factors. Publications of the Department of Public Health Science M 49. Helsinki, Finland; Helsinki University Press 1979
-
24 Kronholm E. Sleep and daytime vigilance. A psychophysiological community study. Turku, Finland; Publications of the Social Insurance Institution of Finland. ML: 121 1993
-
25 Langinvainio H, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M, Tarkkonen L, Lönnqvist J. A semantic differential of psychosocial behavior patterns. Publications of the Department of Public Health Science M 68. Helsinki, Finland; Helsinki University Press 1982
-
26
Martinsen E W.
Benefits of exercise for the treatment of depression.
Sports Med.
1990;
9
381-389
-
27
Martinsen E W.
Physical activity and depression: clinical experience.
Acta Psychiatr Scand.
1994;
377
23-27
-
28
Martinsen E W, Hoffart A, Sohlberg O.
Aerobic and non-aerobic forms of exercise in treatment of anxiety disorders.
Stress Med.
1989;
5
115-120
-
29
Martinsen E W, Medhus A, Sandvik L.
Effects of aerobic exercise on depression: a controlled study.
Br Med J.
1985;
291
109
-
30
Morgan W P.
Anxiety reduction following acute physical activity.
Psychiatr Ann.
1979;
9
141-147
-
31 Morgan W P. Reduction of state anxiety following acute physical activity. In: Morgan WP, Goldston SE, (eds) Exercise and mental health. Washington; Hemisphere Publishing 1987: 105-108
-
32
Morgan W P, Costill D L.
Selected psychological characteristics and health behaviors of aging marathon runners: a longitudinal study.
Int J Sports Med.
1996;
17
305-312
-
33
Morgan W P, O'Connor P, Ellickson K, Bradley P.
Personality structure, mood states and performance in elite male distance runners.
Int J Sport Psychol.
1988;
19
247-263
-
34 Mäkelä S. The Finnish top-level athlete of 1971. A psychiatric study of male representatives of five branches of sport. Helsinki, Finland; Helsinki University Central Hospital, Psychiatric Clinic 1974
-
35
O'Sullivan D, Zuckerman M, Kraft M.
Personality characteristics of male and female participants in team sports.
Person Indiv Diff.
1998;
25
119-128
-
36
Paffenbarger R S, Lee I M, Leung R.
Physical activity and personal characteristics associated with depression and suicide in American college men.
Acta Psychiatr Scand.
1994;
377
16-22
-
37
Petruzzello S J, Landers D M, Hatfield B D, Kubitz K A, Salazar W A.
A meta-analysis on the anxiety-reducting effects of acute and chronic exercise outcome mechanisms.
Sports Med.
1991;
11
143-183
-
38
Raglin J S.
Exercise and mental health beneficial and detrimental effects.
Sports Med.
1990;
9
323-329
-
39
Raglin J S, Morgan W P.
Influence of exercise and quiet rest on state anxiety and blood pressure.
Med Sci Sports Exerc.
1987;
19
456-463
-
40
Sarna S, Sahi T, Koskenvuo M, Kaprio J.
Increased life expectancy of world class male athletes.
Med Sci Sports Exerc.
1993;
25
237-244
-
41
Sexton H, Maere A, Dahl N.
Exercise intensity and reduction in neurotic symptoms.
Acta Psychiatr Scand.
1989;
80
231-235
-
42
Shephard R.
Factors influencing the exercise behavior of patients.
Sports Med.
1985;
2
348-366
-
43 Tarkkonen L, Koskenvuo M, Kaprio J, Langinvainio H. Crossvalidation of the Eysenck extroversion and neuroticism scales in Finland and Sweden. Publications of the Department of Public Health Science M 62. Helsinki, Finland; Helsinki University Press 1981
-
44
Vealey R.
Sport personology: a paradigma and methodological analysis.
J Sports Exerc Psychol.
1989;
11
216-235
-
45
Viken R J, Rose R J, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M.
A developmental generic analysis of adults personality: extroversion and neuroticism from 18 to 59 years of age.
J Person Soc Psychol.
1994;
66
722-730
-
46
Weyerer S.
Physical inactivity and depression in community evidence from the Upper Bavarian field study.
Int J Sports Med.
1992;
13
492-496
-
47
Weyerer S, Kupfer B.
Physical exercise and psychological health.
Sports Med.
1994;
17
108-116
Prof. S. Sarna, Ph.D.
Department of Public Health
P.O. Box 41 (Mannerheimintie 172)
FIN-00014
University of Helsinki,
Finland
Telefon: Phone:+ 35 89 19127524
Fax: Fax:+ 35 89 19127533
eMail: E-mail:seppo.sarna@helsinki.fi
