Download PDF
Semin Liver Dis 2002; 22(2): 115-122
DOI: 10.1055/s-2002-30098
Copyright © 2002 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA. Tel.: +1(212) 584-4662

Regulation of Hepatic Drug Metabolism: Role of the Nuclear Receptors PXR and CAR

Christopher Liddle1 , Bryan Goodwin2
  • 1Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Storr Liver Unit, Westmead Millennium Institute, University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, Australia
  • 2Nuclear Receptor Systems Research, GlaxoSmithKline Inc., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
16 May 2002 (online)

    Permissions and Reprints

ABSTRACT

Recent advances in the molecular biology of nuclear receptors have revealed that the pregnane X receptor (PXR) and the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) are able to act as sensors for lipophilic xenobiotics, including therapeutic drugs. These receptors in turn regulate enzymes and transporters involved in drug metabolism and disposition in an adaptive fashion. An unexpected finding was that the PXR was able to recognize bile acids; transgenic animals lacking this receptor are at increased risk of bile acid-induced liver injury. These findings provide new insights into hepatic drug metabolism as well as mechanisms regulating cholesterol and bile acid homeostasis.

KEYWORDS

Cytochrome P450 - bile acids - drug disposition - drug metabolism - nuclear receptor - pregnane X receptor - constitutive androstane receptor

REFERENCES

  • 1 Remmer H. Drug tolerance. In: Monga JL, De Reuck AVS, eds. Ciba Foundation Symposium on Enzymes and Drug Action London: Churchill 1962: 276-298
    Google Scholar
  • 2 Conney A H. Pharmacological implications of microsomal enzyme induction.  Pharmacol Rev . 1967;  19 317-366
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Nelson D R, Koymans L, Kamataki T. P450 superfamily: update on new sequences, gene mapping, accession numbers and nomenclature.  Pharmacogenetics . 1996;  6 1-42
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Gonzalez F J, Gelboin H V. Human cytochromes P450: evolution and cDNA-directed expression.  Environ Health Perspect . 1992;  98 81-85
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Shimada T, Yamazaki H, Mimura M. Interindividual variations in human liver cytochrome P-450 enzymes involved in the oxidation of drugs, carcinogens and toxic chemicals: studies with liver microsomes of 30 Japanese and 30 Caucasians.  J Pharmacol Exp Ther . 1994;  270 414-423
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Brian W R, Sari M A, Iwasaki M. Catalytic activities of human liver cytochrome P-450 IIIA4 expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Biochemistry .  1990;  29 11280-11292
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Nebert D W, Gonzalez F J. P450 genes: structure, evolution, and regulation.  Annu Rev Biochem . 1987;  56 945-993
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Maurel P. The CYP3A family. In: Ioannides C, ed. Cytochromes P450: Metabolic and Toxicological Aspects Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press 1996: 241-270
    Google Scholar
  • 9 Kolars J C, Lown K S, Schmiedlin-Ren P. CYP3A expression in human gut epithelium.  Pharmacogenetics . 1994;  4 247-259
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Huang Z, Fasco M J, Figge H L. Expression of cytochromes P450 in human breast.  Drug Metab Dispos . 1996;  24 899-905
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Schuetz J D, Beach D L, Guzelian P S. Selective expression of cytochrome P450 CYP3A mRNAs in embryonic and adult human liver.  Pharmacogenetics . 1994;  4 11-20
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Lacroix D, Sonnier M, Moncion A. Expression of CYP3A in the human liver-evidence that the shift between CYP3A7 and CYP3A4 occurs immediately after birth.  Eur J Biochem . 1997;  247 625-634
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Itoh S, Satoh M, Abe Y. A novel form of mouse cytochrome P450 3A (Cyp3A-16). Its cDNA cloning and expression in fetal liver.  Eur J Biochem . 1994;  226 877-882
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Denison M S, Whitlock Jr P J. Xenobiotic-inducible transcription of cytochrome P450 genes.  J Biol Chem . 1995;  270 18175-18178
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Michalets E L. Update: clinically significant cytochrome P-450 drug interactions.  Pharmacotherapy . 1998;  18 84-112
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Whitlock Jr P J, Chichester C H, Bedgood R M. Induction of drug-metabolizing enzymes by dioxin.  Drug Metab Rev . 1997;  29 1107-1127
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Johnson E F, Palmer C N, Griffin K J, Hsu M H. Role of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor in cytochrome P450 4A gene regulation.  FASEB J . 1996;  10 1241-1248
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Gonzalez F J, Fernandez-Salguero P, Lee S S. Xenobiotic receptor knockout mice.  Toxicol Lett . 1995;  82-83 117-121
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Kliewer S A, Moore J T, Wade L. An orphan nuclear receptor activated by pregnanes defines a novel steroid signaling pathway.  Cell . 1998;  92 73-82
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Bertilsson G, Heidrich J, Svensson K. Identification of a human nuclear receptor defines a new signaling pathway for CYP3A induction.  Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 1998;  95 12208-12213
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Blumberg B, Sabbagh Jr W, Juguilon H. SXR, a novel steroid and xenobiotic-sensing nuclear receptor.  Genes Dev . 1998;  12 3195-205
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Lehmann J M, McKee D D, Watson M A. The human orphan nuclear receptor PXR is activated by compounds that regulate CYP3A4 gene expression and cause drug interactions.  J Clin Invest . 1998;  102 1016-1023
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Zhang H, LeCulyse E, Liu L. Rat pregnane X receptor: molecular cloning, tissue distribution, and xenobiotic regulation.  Arch Biochem Biophys . 1999;  368 14-22
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Jones S A, Moore L B, Shenk J L. The pregnane x receptor: a promiscuous xenobiotic receptor that has diverged during evolution.  Mol Endocrinol . 2000;  14 27-39
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Savas U, Wester M R, Griffin K J, Johnson E F. Rabbit pregnane X receptor is activated by rifampicin.  Drug Metab Dispos . 2000;  28 529-537
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Glass C K. Differential recognition of target genes by nuclear receptor monomers, dimers, and heterodimers.  Endocr Rev . 1994;  15 391-407
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Mangelsdorf D J, Thummel C, Beato M. The nuclear receptor superfamily: the second decade.  Cell . 1995;  83 835-839
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Bourguet W, Germain P, Gronemeyer H. Nuclear receptor ligand-binding domains: three-dimensional structures, molecular interactions and pharmacological implications.  Trends Pharmacol Sci . 2000;  21 381-388
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Mangelsdorf D J, Evans R M. The RXR heterodimers and orphan receptors.  Cell . 1995;  83 841-850
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Giguere V. Orphan nuclear receptors: from gene to function.  Endocr Rev . 1999;  20 689-725
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Blumberg B, Evans R M. Orphan nuclear receptors-new ligands and new possibilities.  Genes Dev . 1998;  12 3149-3155
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Gustafsson J A. Seeking ligands for lonely orphan receptors.  Science . 1999;  284 1285-1286
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Kliewer S A, Lehmann J M, Willson T M. Orphan nuclear receptors: shifting endocrinology into reverse.  Science . 1999;  284 757-760
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Watkins P B, Wrighton S A, Schuetz E G. Identification of glucocorticoid-inducible cytochromes P-450 in the intestinal mucosa of rats and man.  J Clin Invest . 1987;  80 1029-1036
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 de Waziers I, Cugnenc P H, Yang C S. Cytochrome P450 isoenzymes, epoxide hydrolase and glutathione transferases in rat and human hepatic and extrahepatic tissues.  J Pharmacol Exp Ther . 1990;  253 387-394
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Wrighton S A, Schuetz E G, Watkins P B. Demonstration in multiple species of inducible hepatic cytochromes P-450 and their mRNAs related to the glucocorticoid-inducible cytochrome P-450 of the rat.  Mol Pharmacol . 1985;  28 312-321
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Kocarek T A, Schuetz E G, Strom S C. Comparative analysis of cytochrome P4503A induction in primary cultures of rat, rabbit, and human hepatocytes.  Drug Metab Dispos . 1995;  23 415-421
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Daujat M, Pichard L, Dalet C. Expression of five forms of microsomal cytochrome P-450 in primary cultures of rabbit hepatocytes treated with various classes of inducers.  Biochem Pharmacol . 1987;  36 3597-3606
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Potenza C L, Pendurthi U R, Strom D K. Regulation of the rabbit cytochrome P-450 3c gene. Age-dependent expression and transcriptional activation by rifampicin.  J Biol Chem . 1989;  264 16222-16228
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Goodwin B, Hodgson E, Liddle C. The orphan human pregnane X receptor mediates the transcriptional activation of CYP3A4 by rifampicin through a distal enhancer module.  Mol Pharmacol . 1999;  56 1329-1339
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Pascussi J M, Jounaidi Y, Drocourt L. Evidence for the presence of a functional pregnane X receptor response element in the CYP3A7 promoter gene.  Biochem Biophys Res Commun . 1999;  260 377-381
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Bertilsson G, Berkenstam A, Blomquist P. Functionally conserved xenobiotic responsive enhancer in cytochrome P450 3A7.  Biochem Biophys Res Commun . 2001;  280 139-144
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Honkakoski P, Zelko I, Sueyoshi T, Negishi M. The nuclear orphan receptor CAR-retinoid X receptor heterodimer activates the phenobarbital-responsive enhancer module of the CYP2B gene.  Mol Cell Biol . 1998;  18 5652-5658
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Kawamoto T, Sueyoshi T, Zelko I. Phenobarbital-responsive nuclear translocation of the receptor CAR in induction of the CYP2B gene.  Mol Cell Biol . 1999;  19 6318-6322
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Sueyoshi T, Kawamoto T, Zelko I. The repressed nuclear receptor CAR responds to phenobarbital in activating the human CYP2B6 gene.  J Biol Chem . 1999;  274 6043-6046
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Forman B M, Tzameli I, Choi H-S. Androstane metabolites bind to and deactivate the nuclear receptor CAR-β.  Nature . 1998;  395 612-615
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Moore L B, Parks D J, Jones S A. Orphan nuclear receptors constitutive androstane receptor and pregnane X receptor share xenobiotic and steroid ligands.  J Biol Chem . 2000;  275 15122-15127
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Tzameli I, Pissios P, Schuetz E G, Moore D D. The xenobiotic compound 1,4-bis[2-(3,5-dichloropyridyloxy)]benzene is as agonist ligand for the nuclear receptor CAR.  Mol Cell Biol . 2000;  20 2951-2958
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Honkakoski P, Negishi M. Protein serine/threonine phosphatase inhibitors suppress phenobarbital-induced Cyp2b10 gene transcription in mouse primary hepatocytes.  Biochem J . 1998;  330 889-895
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Nirodi C S, Sultana S, Ram N. Involvement of synthesis and phosphorylation of nuclear protein factors that bind to the positive cis-acting element in the transcriptional activation of the CYP2B1/B2 gene by phenobarbitone in vivo.  Arch Biochem Biophys . 1996;  331 79-86
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Sidhu J S, Omiecinski C J. cAMP-associated inhibition of phenobarbital-inducible cytochrome P450 gene expression in primary rat hepatocyte culture.  J Biol Chem . 1995;  270 12762-12773
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Wei P, Zhang J, Egan-Hafley M. The nuclear receptor CAR mediates specific xenobiotic induction of drug metabolism.  Nature . 2000;  407 920-923
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Zelko I, Sueyoshi T, Kawamoto T. The peptide near the C terminus regulates receptor CAR nuclear translocation induced by xenochemicals in mouse liver.  Mol Cell Biol . 2001;  21 2838-2846
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Goodwin B, Moore L B, Stoltz C M. Regulation of the human CYP2B6 gene by the nuclear pregnane X receptor.  Mol Pharmacol . 2001;  60 427-431
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Xie W, Barwick J L, Simon C M. Reciprocal activation of xenobiotic response genes by nuclear receptors SXR/PXR and CAR.  Genes Dev . 2000;  14 3014-3023
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Smirlis D, Muangmoonchai R, Edwards M. Orphan receptor promiscuity in the induction of cytochromes P450 by xenobiotics.  J Biol Chem . 2001;  276 12822-12826
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Thiebaut F, Tsuruo T, Hamada H. Cellular localization of the multidrug-resistance gene product P-glycoprotein in normal human tissues.  Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 1987;  84 7735-7738
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Greiner B, Eichelbaum M, Fritz P. The role of intestinal P-glycoprotein in the interaction of digoxin and rifampin.  J Clin Invest . 1999;  104 147-153
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Geick A, Eichelbaum M, Burk O. Nuclear receptor response elements mediate induction of intestinal MDR1 by rifampin.  J Biol Chem . 2001;  276 14581-14587
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Keppler D, Konig J. Expression and localization of the conjugate export pump encoded by the MRP2 (cMRP/cMOAT) gene in liver.  FASEB J . 1997;  11 509-516
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Fromm M F, Kauffmann H M, Fritz P. The effect of rifampin treatment on intestinal expression of human MRP transporters.  Am J Pathol . 2000;  157 1575-1580
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Kast H R, Goodwin B, Tarr P T. Regulation of multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2;ABCC2) by the nuclear receptors PXR, FXR, and CAR.  J Biol Chem . 2002;  277 2908-2915
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Reichel C, Gao B, Van Montfoort J. Localization and function of the organic anion-transporting polypeptide Oatp2 in rat liver.  Gastroenterology . 1999;  117 688-695
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Rausch-Derra L C, Hartley D P, Meier P J, Klaassen C D. Differential effects of microsomal enzyme-inducing chemicals on the hepatic expression of rat organic anion transporters, OATP1 and OATP2.  Hepatology . 2001;  33 1469-1478
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Staudinger J L, Goodwin B, Jones S A. The nuclear receptor PXR is a lithocholic acid sensor that protects against liver toxicity.  Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 2001;  98 3369-3374
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Staudinger J, Liu Y, Madan A. Coordinate regulation of xenobiotic and bile acid homeostasis by pregnane x receptor.  Drug Metab Dispos . 2001;  29 1467-1472
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Williams M T, Leonard D, Simonet L. Effects of pregnenolone-16 α-carbonitrile on drug metabolizing enzymes in hypophysectomized female rats.  Life Sci . 1987;  41 1141-1148
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Synold T W, Dussault I, Forman B M. The orphan nuclear receptor SXR coordinately regulates drug metabolism and efflux.  Nat Med . 2001;  7 584-590
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Gerbal-Chaloin S, Pascussi J M, Pichard-Garcia L. Induction of CYP2C genes in human hepatocytes in primary culture.  Drug Metab Dispos . 2001;  29 242-251
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Madhu C, Klaassen C D. Protective effect of pregnenolone-16 α-carbonitrile on acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in hamsters.  Toxicol Appl Pharmacol . 1991;  109 305-313
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Liu L, Klaassen C D. Regulation of hepatic sulfotransferases by steroidal chemicals in rats.  Drug Metab Dispos . 1996;  24 854-858
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Dunn R T, Gleason B A, Hartley D P, Klaassen C D. Postnatal ontogeny and hormonal regulation of sulfotransferase SULTIB1 in male and female rats.  J Pharmacol Exp Ther . 1999;  290 319-324
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Runge-Morris M, Wu W, Kocarek T A. Regulation of rat hepatic hydroxysteroid sulfotransferase (SULT2-40/41) gene expression by glucocorticoids: evidence for a dual mechanism of transcriptional control.  Mol Pharmacol . 1999;  56 1198-1206
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Hosokawa M, Hattori K, Satoh T. Differential responses of rat hepatic microsomal carboxylesterase isozymes to glucocorticoids and pregnenolone 16 α-carbonitrile.  Biochem Pharmacol . 1993;  45 2317-2322
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Chiang J YL. Regulation of bile acid synthesis.  Front Biosci . 1998;  3 176-193
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Iser J H, Dowling H, Mok H Y, Bell G D. Chenodeoxycholic acid treatment of gall stones. A follow-up report and analysis of factors influencing response to therapy.  N Engl J Med . 1975;  293 378-383
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Schmucker D L, Ohta M, Kanai S. Hepatic injury induced by bile salts: correlation between biochemical and morphological events.  Hepatology . 1990;  12 1216-1221
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Radominska A, Treat S, Little J. Bile acid metabolism and the pathophysiology of cholestasis.  Semin Liver Dis . 1993;  13 219-234
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Radominska-Pyrek A, Zimniak P, Irshaid Y M. Glucuronidation of 6 α-hydroxy bile acids by human liver microsomes.  J Clin Invest . 1987;  80 234-241
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Waxman D J, Attisano C, Guengerich F P, Lapenson D P. Human liver microsomal steroid metabolism: identification of the major microsomal steroid hormone 6 β-hydroxylase P-450.  Arch Biochem Biophys . 1988;  263 424-436
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Summerfield J A, Billing B H, Shackleton C H. Identification of bile acids in the serum and urine in cholestasis.  Evidence for 6 α-hydroxylation of bile acids in man. Biochem J . 1976;  154 507-516
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Salen G, Batta A K. Bile acid abnormalities in cholestatic liver diseases.  Gastroenterol Clin North Am . 1999;  28 173-193
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Araya Z, Wikvall K. 6α-Hydroxylation of taurochenodeoxycholic acid and lithocholic acid by CYP3A4 in human liver microsomes.  Biochim Biophys Acta . 1999;  1438 47-54
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Wietholtz H, Marschall H U, Sjovall J, Matern S. Stimulation of bile acid 6-α hydroxylation by rifampin.  J Hepatol . 1996;  24 713-718
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Bachs L, Pares A, Elena M. Effects of long-term rifampicin administration in primary biliary cirrhosis.  Gastroenterology . 1992;  102 2077-2080
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Xie W, Radominska-Pandya A, Shi Y. An essential role for nuclear receptors SXR/PXR in detoxification of cholestatic bile acids.  Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 2001;  98 3375-3380
    Google Scholar
  • 87 Chawla A, Saez E, Evans R M. ``Don't know much bile-ology''.  Cell . 2000;  103 1-4
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Lu T T, Makishima M, Repa J J. Molecular basis for feedback regulation of bile acid synthesis by nuclear receptors.  Mol Cell . 2000;  6 507-515
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Repa J J, Mangelsdorf D J. The role of orphan nuclear receptors in the regulation of cholesterol homeostasis.  Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol . 2000;  16 459-481
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Willson T M, Jones S A, Moore J T, Kliewer S A. Chemical genomics: functional analysis of orphan nuclear receptors in the regulation of bile acid metabolism.  Med Res Rev . 2001;  21 513-522
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar