Systematic Review of Prospective Cohort Studies of Psychosocial Factors in the Etiology and Prognosis of Coronary Heart Disease

ABSTRACT

The extent to which the associations between psychosocial factors and coronary heart disease (CHD) are causal has seldom been the subject of systematic enquiry. We are updating our previous systematic review up to 2001. The objective of this study is to assess the relative strength of the epidemiological evidence for causal links between psychosocial factors and CHD incidence among healthy populations, and prognosis among CHD patients. Our methods were to systematically review prospective cohort studies identified through the Science Citation index, which met pre-specified quality criteria. We found that the proportion of etiologic studies reporting a strong or moderate association was: 6/18 for Type A behavior and hostility, 15/22 for depression, 4/8 for anxiety, 10/13 for psychosocial work characteristics and 6/9 for social support. For prognostic studies the proportions were: 2/15 for type A behavior and hostility, 18/34 for depression, 8/18 for anxiety, 2/4 for psychosocial work characteristics and 14/21 for social support. Positive studies were more likely to be cited by other papers than negative studies. We concluded that, based on prospective epidemiological data, there was evidence for an association between depression, social support and psychosocial work characteristics and CHD aetiology and prognosis. Evidence for an effect of anxiety or type A behavior was less consistent. Methods to address bias in the reporting of psychosocial data are required.

KEYWORDS

CHD - psychosocial factors - systematic review

REFERENCES

• 1 Hemingway H, Marmot M. Evidence based cardiology: psychosocial factors in the aetiology and prognosis of coronary heart disease. Systematic review of prospective cohort studies.  BMJ . 1999;  318 1460-1467
• 2 Hill A B. The environment and disease: association or causation?.  Proc Roy Soc Med . 1965;  58 295-300
• 3 Aromaa A, Raitasalo R, Reunanen A. Depression and cardiovascular diseases.  Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl . 1994;  377 77-82
• 4 Pratt L A, Ford D E, Crum R M. Depression, psychotropic medication, and risk of myocardial infarction. Prospective data from the Baltimore ECA follow-up.  Circulation . 1996;  94 3123-129
• 5 Penninx B W, Beekman A T, Honig A. Depression and cardiac mortality: results from a community-based longitudinal study.  Arch Gen Psychiatry . 2001;  58 221-227
• 6 Cohen H W, Madhavan S, Alderman M H. History of treatment for depression: risk factor for myocardial infarction in hypertensive patients.  Psychosom Med . 2001;  63 203-209
• 7 Horsten M, Wamala S P, Vingerhoets A. Depressive symptoms, social support, and lipid profile in healthy middle-aged women.  Psychosom Med . 1997;  59 521-528
• 8 Brisson C, Larocque B, Moisan J. Psychosocial factors at work, smoking, sedentary behavior, and body mass index: a prevalence study among 6995 white collar workers.  J Occup Environ Med . 2000;  42 40-46
• 9 Brunner E. Stress and the biology of inequality.  BMJ . 1997;  314 1472-1476
• 10 Kawachi I, Sparrow D, Kubzansky L D. Prospective study of a self-report type A scale and risk of coronary heart disease: test of the MMPI-2 type A scale.  Circulation . 1998;  98 405-412
• 11 Everson S A, Kauhanen J, Kaplan G A. Hostility and increased risk of mortality and acute myocardial infarction: the mediating role of behavioural risk factors.  Am J Epidemiol . 1997;  146 142-152
• 12 Ladwig K H, Kieser M, Konig J. Affective disorders and survival after acute myocardial infarction. Results from the post-infarction late potential study.  Eur Heart J . 1991;  12 959-964
• 13 Barefoot J C, Helms M J, Mark D B. Depression and long-term mortality risk in patients with coronary artery disease.  Am J Cardiol . 1996;  78 613-617
• 14 Hearn M D, Murray D M, Luepker R V. Hostility, coronary heart disease, and total mortality: a 33-year follow-up study of university students.  J Behav Med . 1989;  Apr;12(2) 105-121
• 15 Frasure-Smith N. In-hospital symptoms of psychological stress as predictors of long-term outcome after acute myocardial infarction in men.  Am J Cardiol . 1991;  67 121-127
• 16 Rosengren A, Tibblin G, Wilhelmsen L. Self-perceived psychological stress and incidence of coronary artery disease in middle-aged men.  Am J Cardiol . 1991;  68 1171-1175
• 17 Ahern D K, Gorkin L, Anderson J L. Biobehavioural variables and mortality/cardiac arrest in the cardiac arrhythmia pilot study.  Am J Cardiol . 1990;  66 59-62
• 18 Kawachi I, Colditz G A, Ascherio A. A prospective study of social networks in relation to total mortality and cardiovascular disease in men in the USA.  J Epidemiol Community Health . 1996;  50 245-251
• 19 Haan M N. Job strain and ischaemic heart disease: an epidemiologic study of metal workers.  Ann Clin Res . 1988;  20 143-145
• 20 Jenkins C D, Rosenman R H, Zyzanski S J. Prediction of clinical coronary heart disease by a test of the coronary-prone behaviour pattern.  N Engl J Med . 1974;  290 1271-1275
• 21 Rosenman R H, Brand R J, Sholtz R I. Multivariate prediction of coronary heart disease during 8.5 year follow-up in western collaborative group study.  Am J Cardiol . 1976;  37 903-909
• 22 Haynes S G, Feinleib M, Kannel W B. The relationship of psychosocial factors to coronary heart disease in the Framingham study: 3. Eight year incidence of coronary heart disease.  Am J Epidemiol . 1980;  111 37-58
• 23 Sebregts E H, Falger P R, Bar F W. Risk factor modification through nonpharmacological interventions in patients with coronary heart disease.  J Psychosom Res . 2000;  48 425-441
• 24 Ragland D R, Brand R J. Coronary heart disease mortality in the western collaborative group study: follow-up experience of 22 years.  Am J Epidemiol . 1988;  127 462-475
• 25 Shekelle R B, Hulley S B, Neaton J D. The MRFIT behavior pattern study. II. Type A behavior and incidence of coronary heart disease.  Am J Epidemiol . 1985;  122 559-570
• 26 Tunstall-Pedoe H, Woodward M, Tavendale R, Brook R A, McCluskey M K. Comparison of the prediction by 27 different factors of coronary heart disease and death in men and women of the Scottish heart health study: cohort study.  BMJ . 1997;  315 722-729
• 27 Eaker E D, Abbott R D, Kannel W B. Frequency of uncomplicated angina pectoris in type A compared with type B persons (the Framingham Study).  Am J Cardiol . 1989;  63 1042-1045
• 28 Barefoot J C, Larsen S, von der Lieth L, Schroll M. Hostility, incidence of acute myocardial infarction and mortality in a sample of older Danish men and women.  Am J Epidemiol . 1995;  142 477-484
• 29 Ragland D R, Brand R J. Type A behaviour and mortality from coronary heart disease.  N Engl J Med . 1988;  318 65-69
• 30 Eaker E D, Castelli W P. Type A behavior and mortality from coronary disease in the Framingham study.  N Engl J Med . 1988;  319 1480-1481
• 31 Penninx B W, Guralnik J M, Mendes de Leon F C. Cardiovascular events and mortality in newly and chronically depressed persons > 70 years of age.  Am J Cardiol . 1998;  81 988-994
• 32 Ferketich A K, Schwartzbaum J A, Frid D J. Depression as an antecedent to heart disease among women and men in the NHANES I study. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.  Arch Intern Med . 2000;  160 1261-1268
• 33 Hallstrom T, Lapidus L, Bengtsson C, Edstrom K. Psychosocial factors and risk of ischaemic heart disease and death in women: a 12 year follow up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden.  J Psychosom Res . 1986;  30 451-459
• 34 Sesso H D, Kawachi I, Vokonas P S. Depression and the risk of coronary heart disease in the Normative Aging Study.  Am J Cardiol . 1998;  82 851-856
• 35 Ariyo A A, Haan M, Tangen C M. Depressive symptoms and risks of coronary heart disease and mortality in elderly Americans. Cardiovascular Health Study Collaborative Research Group.  Circulation . 2000;  102 1773-1779
• 36 Mehta R H, Eagle K A. Secondary prevention in acute myocardial infarction.  BMJ . 1998;  316 838-842
• 37 Schleifer S J, Macari-Hinson M M, Coyle D A. The nature and course of depression following myocardial infarction.  Arch Intern Med . 1989;  149 1785-1789
• 38 Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Talajic M. Depression and 18 month prognosis after myocardial infarction.  Circulation . 1995;  91 999-1005
• 39 Medalie J H, Snyder M, Groen J J. Angina pectoris among 10,000 men. Five year incidence and univariate analysis.  Am J Med . 1973;  55 583-594
• 40 Medalie J H, Goldbourt U. Angina pectoris among 10 000 men. II. Psychosocial and other risk factors as evidenced by a multivariate analysis of a five year incidence study.  Am J Med . 1976;  60 910-921
• 41 Haines A P, Imeson J D, Meade T W. Phobic anxiety and ischaemic heart disease.  BMJ . 1987;  295 297-299
• 42 Kawachi I, Colditz G A, Ascherio A. Prospective study of phobic anxiety and risk of coronary heart disease in men.  Circulation . 1994;  89 1992-1997
• 43 Haines A, Cooper J, Meade T W. Psychological characteristics and fatal ischaemic heart disease.  Heart . 2001;  85 385-389
• 44 Karasek R A. Job demands, job decision latitude and mental strain: implications for job design.  Admin Sci Q . 1979;  24 285-308
• 45 Karasek, Theorell T. Healthy work: stress productivity and reconstruction of working life.  New York, NY: Basic Books 1990
• 46 Siegrist J, Peter R, Junge A. Low status control, high effort at work and ischemic heart disease: prospective evidence from blue-collar men.  Soc Sci Med . 1990;  31 1127-1134
• 47 Siegrist J. Adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions.  J Occup Health.Psychol . 1996;  1 27-41
• 48 Williams R B, Barefoot J C, Califf R M. Prognostic importance of social and economic resources among medically treated patients with angiographically documented coronary artery disease.  JAMA . 1992;  267 520-524
• 49 Welin C, Lappas G, Wilhelmsen L. Independent importance of psychosocial factors for prognosis after myocardial infarction.  J Intern Med . 2000;  247 629-639
• 50 Linden W, Stossel C, Maurice J. Psychosocial interventions in patients with coronary artery disease: a meta-analysis.  Arch Intern Med . 1996;  156 745-752
• 51 Jones D A, West R R. Psychological rehabilitation after myocardial infarction: multicentre randomised controlled trial.  BMJ . 1996;  313 517-521
• 52 Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Prince R H. Randomised trial of home-based psychosocial nursing intervention for patients recovering from myocardial infarction.  Lancet . 1997;  350 473-479
• 53 Bucher H C. Social support and prognosis following first myocardial infarction.  J Gen Int Med . 1994;  9 409-417
• 54 Blumenthal J A, O'Connor C, Hinderliter A. Psychosocial factors and coronary disease. A national multicenter clinical trial (ENRICHD) with a North Carolina focus.  N C Med J . 1997;  58 440-444
• 55 Shekelle R B, Gale M, Ostfeld A M. Hostility, risk of coronary heart disease and mortality.  Psychosom Med . 1983;  45 109-114
• 56 Kaplan G A, Salonen J T, Cohen R D. Social connections and mortality from all causes and from cardiovascular disease: prospective evidence from Eastern Finland.  Am J Epidemiol . 1988;  128 370-380
• 57 Kuh D, Ben-Shlomo Y. A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology. New York:Oxford University Press, 1997
• 58 Cohen J B, Reed D. The type A pattern and coronary heart disease among Japanese men in Hawaii.  J Behav Med . 1985;  4 343-352
• 59 Appels A, Mulder P, van `t Hof M, Jenkins C D, van Houtem J, Tan F. A prospective study of the Jenkins Activity Survey as a risk indicator for coronary heart disease in the Netherlands.  J Chronic Dis . 1987;  40 959-965
• 60 Johnston D W, Cook D G, Shaper A G. Type A behavior and ischaemic heart disease in middle-aged British men.  BMJ . 1987;  295 86-89
• 61 Koskenvuo M, Kaprio J, Rose R J. Hostility as a risk factor for mortality and ischemic heart disease in men.  Psychosom Med . 1988;  50 330-340
• 62 Hollis J F, Connett J E, Stevens V J. Stressful life events, Type A behavior, and the prediction of cardiovascular and total mortality over six years. MRFIT Group.  J Behav Med . 1990;  13 263-280
• 63 Bosma H, Appels A, Sturmans F. Psychosocial factors in the aetiology of coronary heart disease: follow-up to the Kaunas-Rotterdam intervention study (KRIS).  Cardiology . 1995;  2 54-59
• 64 Whiteman M C, Deary I J, Lee A J, Fowkes F G. Submissiveness and protection from coronary heart disease in the general population: Edinburgh Artery Study.  Lancet . 1997;  350 541-545
• 65 Case R B, Heller S S, Case N B. Type A behavior and survival after acute myocardial infarction.  N Engl J Med . 1985;  312 737-741
• 66 Shekelle R B, Gale M, Norusis M. Type A score (Jenkins activity survey) and risk of recurrent coronary heart disease in the aspirin myocardial infarction study.  Am J Cardiol . 1985;  56 221-225
• 67 Brackett C D, Powell L H. Psychosocial and physiological predictors of sudden cardiac death after healing of acute myocardial infarction.  Am J Cardiol . 1988;  61 979-983
• 68 Barefoot J C, Peterson B L, Harrell F EJ. Type A behavior and survival: a follow-up study of 1,467 patients with coronary artery disease.  Am J Cardiol . 1989;  64 427-432
• 69 Palmer K J, Langeluddecke P M, Jones M. The relation of the type A behaviour pattern, factors of the structured interview, and anger to survival after myocardial infarction.  Aus J Psych . 1992;  44 13-19
• 70 Jenkinson C M, Madeley R J, Mitchell J R. The influence of psychosocial factors on survival after myocardial infarction.  Public Health . 1993;  107 305-317
• 71 Friedmann E, Thomas S A. Pet ownership, social support and one-year survival after acute myocardial infarction in the cardiac arrhythmia suppression trial (CAST).  Am J Cardiol . 1995;  76 1213-1217
• 72 Carinci F, Nicolucci A, Ciampi A. Role of interactions between psychological and clinical factors in determining 6-month mortality among patients with acute myocardial infarction. Application of recursive partitioning techniques to the GISSI-2 database. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell' Infarto Miocardico.  Eur Heart J . 1997;  18 835-845
• 73 Irvine J, Basinski A, Baker B. Depression and risk of sudden cardiac death after acute myocardial infarction: testing for the confounding effects of fatigue.  Psychosom Med . 1999;  61 729-737
• 74 Kaufmann M W, Fitzgibbons J P, Sussman E J. Relation between myocardial infarction, depression, hostility, and death.  Am Heart J . 1999;  138 549-554
• 75 Ostfeld A M, Lebovits B Z, Shekelle R B. A prospective study of the relationship between personality and coronary heart disease.  J Chronic Dis . 1964;  17 265-276
• 76 Anda R, Williamson D, Jones D. Depressed affect, hopelessness, and the risk of ischaemic heart disease in a cohort of U.S. adults.  Epidemiol . 1993;  4 285-294
• 77 Vogt T, Pope C, Mullooly J. Mental health status as a predictor of morbidity and mortality: a 15-year follow-up of members of a health maintenance organization.  Am J Public Health . 1994;  84 227-231
• 78 Barefoot J C, Schroll M. Symptoms of depression, acute myocardial infarction and total mortality in a community sample.  Circulation . 1996;  93 1976-1980
• 79 Wassertheil-Smoller S, Applegate W B, Berge K. Change in depression as a precursor of cardiovascular events. SHEP Cooperative Research Group (Systolic Hypertension in the elderly).  Arch Intern Med . 1996;  156 553-561
• 80 Mendes de Leon F C, Krumholz H M, Seeman T S. Depression and risk of coronary heart disease in elderly men and women: New Haven EPESE, 1982-1991. Established Populations for the Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly.  Arch Intern Med . 1998;  158 2341-2348
• 81 Ford D E, Mead L A, Chang P P. Depression is a risk factor for coronary artery disease in men: the precursors study.  Arch Intern Med . 1998;  158 1422-1426
• 82 Chen Y T, Vaccarino V, Williams C S. Risk factors for heart failure in the elderly: a prospective community-based study.  Am J Med . 1999;  106 605-612
• 83 Cole S R, Kawachi I, Sesso H D, Paffenbarger R S, Lee I M. Sense of exhaustion and coronary heart disease among college alumni.  Am J Cardiol . 1999;  84 1401-1405
• 84 Cohen H W, Gibson G, Alderman M H. Excess risk of myocardial infarction in patients treated with antidepressant medications: Association with use of tricyclic agents.  Am J Med . 2000;  108 2-8
• 85 Chang M, Hahn R A, Teutsch S M. Multiple risk factors and population attributable risk for ischemic heart disease mortality in the United States, 1971-1992.  J Clin Epidemiol . 2001;  54 634-644
• 86 Berkman L F, Leo-Summers L, Horwitz R I. Emotional support and survival after myocardial infarction. A prospective, population-based study of the elderly.  Ann Intern Med . 1992;  117 1003-1009
• 87 Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Talajic M. Depression following myocardial infarction. Impact on 6-month survival.  JAMA . 1993;  270 1819-1825
• 88 Ladwig K H, Roll G, Breithardt G. Post infarction depression and incomplete recovery 6 months after acute myocardial infarction.  Lancet . 1994;  343 20-23
• 89 Denollet J, Sys S U, Brutsaert D L. Personality and mortality after myocardial infarction.  Psychosom Med . 1995;  57 582-591
• 90 Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Talajic M. The impact of negative emotions on prognosis following myocardial infarction: is it more than depression?.  Health Psychol . 1995;  14 388-398
• 91 Hoffmann A, Pfiffner D, Hornung R. Psychosocial factors predict medical outcome following a first myocardial infarction. Working Group on Cardiac Rehabilitation of the Swiss Society of Cardiology.  Coron Artery Dis . 1995;  6 147-152
• 92 Oxman T E, Freeman Jr H D, Manheimer E D. Lack of social participation or religious strength and comfort as risk factors for death after cardiac surgery in the elderly.  Psychosom Med . 1995;  57 5-15
• 93 Denollet J, Sys S U, Stroobant N. Personality as independent predictor of long term mortality in patients with coronary heart disease.  Lancet . 1996;  347 417-421
• 94 Lesperance F, Frasure-Smith N, Talajic M. Major depression before and after myocardial infarction: its nature and consequences.  Psychosom Med . 1996;  58 99-110
• 95 Krumholz H M, Butler J, Miller J. Prognostic importance of emotional support for elderly patients hospitalized with heart failure.  Circulation . 1998;  97 958-964
• 96 Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Juneau M. Gender, depression, and one-year prognosis after myocardial infarction.  Psychosom Med . 1999;  61 26-37
• 97 Murberg T A, Bru E, Svebak S. Depressed mood and subjective health symptoms as predictors of mortality in patients with congestive heart failure: a two-years follow-up study.  Int J Psychiatry Med . 1999;  29 311-326
• 98 Barefoot J C, Brummett B H, Helms M J. Depressive symptoms and survival of patients with coronary artery disease.  Psychosom Med . 2000;  62 790-795
• 99 Denollet J, Vaes J, Brutsaert D L. Inadequate response to treatment in coronary heart disease: adverse effects of type D personality and younger age on 5-year prognosis and quality of life.  Circulation . 2000;  102 630-635
• 100 Herrmann C, Brand-Driehorst S, Buss U. Effects of anxiety and depression on 5-year mortality in 5,057 patients referred for exercise testing.  J Psychosom Res . 2000;  48 455-462
• 101 Horsten M, Mittleman M A, Wamala S P. Depressive symptoms and lack of social integration in relation to prognosis of CHD in middle-aged women. The Stockholm Female Coronary Risk Study.  Eur Heart J . 2000;  21 1072-1080
• 102 Lane D, Carroll D, Ring C. Effects of depression and anxiety on mortality and quality-of-life 4 months after myocardial infarction.  J Psychosom Res . 2000;  49 229-238
• 103 Lane D, Carroll D, Ring C. Do depression and anxiety predict recurrent coronary events 12 months after myocardial infarction?.  QJM . 2000;  93 739-744
• 104 Lesperance F, Frasure-Smith N, Juneau M. Depression and 1-year prognosis in unstable angina.  Arch Intern Med . 2000;  160 1354-1360
• 105 Baker R A, Andrew M J, Schrader G. Preoperative depression and mortality in coronary artery bypass surgery: Preliminary findings.  Aust N Z J Surg . 2001;  71 139-142
• 106 Lane D, Carroll D, Ring C. Mortality and quality of life 12 months after myocardial infarction: effects of depression and anxiety.  Psychosom Med . 2001;  63 221-230
• 107 Eaker E D, Pinsky J, Castelli W P. Myocardial infarction and coronary death among women: psychosocial predictors from a 20-year follow-up of women in the Framingham Study.  Am J Epidemiol . 1992;  135 854-864
• 108 Kubzansky L D, Kawachi I, Spiro III A. Is worrying bad for your heart?.  <~>A prospective study of worry and coronary heart disease in the Normative Aging Study. Circulation . 1997;  95 818-824
• 109 Allison T G, Williams D E, Miller T D. Medical and economic costs of psychologic distress in patients with coronary artery disease.  Mayo Clin Proc . 1995;  70 734-742
• 110 Perski A, Feleke E, Anderson G. Emotional distress before coronary bypass grafting limits the benefits of surgery.  Am Heart J . 1998;  136 510-517
• 111 Mayou R A, Gill D, Thompson D R. Depression and anxiety as predictors of outcome after myocardial infarction.  Psychosom Med . 2000;  62 212-219
• 112 Theorell T, Floderus-Myrhed B. `Workload' and risk of myocardial infarction-a prospective psychosocial analysis.  Int J Epidemiol . 1977;  6 17-21
• 113 Lacroix A, Haynes S. Occupational exposure to high demand/low control work and coronary heart disease incidence in the Framingham cohort.  Am J Epidemiol . 1984;  120 481
• 114 Alfredsson L, Spetz C-L, Theorell T. Type of occupation and near-future hospitalization for myocardial infarction and some other diagnoses.  Int J Epidemiol . 1985;  14 378-388
• 115 Reed D M, Lacroix A Z, Karasek R A. Occupational strain and the incidence of coronary heart disease.  Am J Epidemiol . 1989;  129 495-502
• 116 Netterstrom B, Suadicani P. Self-assessed job satisfaction and ischaemic heart disease mortality: a 10 year follow up of urban bus drivers.  Int J Epidemiol . 1993;  22 51-56
• 117 Suadicani P, Hein H O, Gynetelberg F. Are social inequalities as associated with the risk ischaemic heart disease a result of psychosocial working conditions?.  Atherosclerosis . 1993;  101 165-15
• 118 Alterman T, Shekelle R B, Vernon S W. Decision latitude, psychologic demand, job strain, and coronary heart disease in the Western Electric study.  Am J Epidemiol . 1994;  139 620-627
• 119 Bosma H, Marmot M G, Hemingway H. Low job control and risk of coronary heart disease in the Whitehall II (prospective cohort) study.  BMJ . 1997;  314 558-565
• 120 Lynch J, Krause N, Kaplan G A. Workplace conditions, socioeconomic status, and the risk of mortality and acute myocardial infarction: the Kuopio ischaemic heart disease risk factor study.  Am J Public Health . 1997;  87 617-622
• 121 Steenland K, Johnson J, Nowlin S. A follow up study of job strain and heart disease among males in the NHANES1 population.  Am J Ind Med . 1997;  31 256-260
• 122 Bosma H, Peter R, Siegrist J. Two alternative job stress models and the risk of coronary heart disease.  Am J Public Health . 1998;  88 68-74
• 123 Moore L, Meyer F, Perusse M. Psychological stress and incidence of ischaemic heart disease.  Int J Epidemiol . 1999;  28 652-658
• 124 Hlatky M A, Lam L C, Lee K L. Job strain and the prevalence and outcome of coronary artery disease.  Circulation . 1995;  92 327-333
• 125 Orth-Gomer K, Wamala S P, Horsten M. Marital stress worsens prognosis in women with coronary heart disease: The Stockholm Female Coronary Risk Study.  JAMA . 2000;  284 3008-3014
• 126 House J S, Robbins C, Metzner H L. The association of social relationships and activities with mortality: prospective evidence from the Tecumseh Community Health Study.  Am J Epidemiol . 1982;  116 123-140
• 127 Berkman L F, Breslow L. Health and ways of living. New York:Oxford University Press, 1983
• 128 Reed D, McGee D, Yano K. Social networks and coronary heart disease among Japanese men in Hawaii.  Am J Epidemiol . 1983;  117 384-396
• 129 Vogt T, Mullooly J, Ernst D. Social networks as predictors of ischemic heart disease, cancer, stroke and hypertension: incidence, survival and mortality.  J Clin Epidemiol . 1992;  45 659-666
• 130 Orth-Gomer K, Rosengren A, Wilhelmsen L. Lack of social support and incidence of coronary heart disease in middle-aged Swedish men.  Psychosom Med . 1993;  55 37-43
• 131 Hedblad B, Ostergren P O, Hanson B S. Influence of social support on cardiac event rate in men with ischaemic type ST segment depression during ambulatory 24-h long-term ECG recording. The prospective population study `Men born in 1914', Malmo, Sweden.  Eur Heart J . 1992;  13 433-439
• 132 Gorkin L, Schron E B, Brooks M M. Psychosocial predictors of mortality in the cardiac arrhythmia suppression trial-1 (CAST-1).  Am J Cardiol . 1993;  71 263-267
• 133 Greenwood D, Packham C, Muir K. How do economic status and social support influence survival after initial recovery from acute myocardial infarction?.  Soc Sci Med . 1995;  40 639-647
• 134 Farmer I P, Meyer P S, Ramsey D J. Higher levels of social support predict greater survival following acute myocardial infarction: the Corpus Christi Heart Project.  Behav Med . 1996;  22 59-66
• 135 Woloshin S, Schwartz L M, Tosteson A N. Perceived adequacy of tangible social support and health outcomes in patients with coronary artery disease.  J Gen Intern Med . 1997;  12 613-618
• 136 Herlitz J, Wiklund I, Caidahl K. The feeling of loneliness prior to coronary artery bypass grafting might be a predictor of short-and long-term postoperative mortality.  Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg . 1998;  16 120-125
• 137 Brummett B H, Barefoot J C, Siegler I C. Characteristics of socially isolated patients with coronary artery disease who are at elevated risk for mortality.  Psychosom Med . 2001;  63 267-272
• 138 Appels A, Mulder P. Excess fatigue as a precursor of myocardial infarction.  Eur Heart J . 1988;  9 758-764
• 139 Appels A, Mulder P. Fatigue and heart disease. The association between `vital exhaustion' and past, present and future coronary heart disease.  J Psychosom Res . 1989;  33 727-738
• 140 Appels A, Schouten E. Waking up exhausted as risk indicator of myocardial infarction.  Am J Cardiol . 1991;  68 395-398
• 141 Almada S J, Zonderman A B, Shekelle R B. Neuroticism and cynicism and risk of death in middle-aged men: the Western Electric Study.  Psychosom Med . 1991;  53 165-175
• 142 Everson S A, Goldberg D E, Kaplan G A. Hopelessness and risk of mortality and incidence of myocardial infarction and cancer.  Psychosom Med . 1996;  58 113-121
• 143 Kawachi I, Sparrow D, Spiro 3rd A. A prospective study of anger and coronary heart disease. The Normative Aging Study.  Circulation . 1996;  94 2090-2095
• 144 Gallacher J E, Yarnell J W, Sweetnam P M. Anger and incident heart disease in the caerphilly study.  Psychosom Med . 1999;  61 446-53
• 145 Appels A, Kop W J, Schouten E. The nature of the depressive symptomatology preceding myocardial infarction.  Behav Med . 2000;  26 86-89
• 146 Siegman A W, Kubzansky L D, Kawachi I. A prospective study of dominance and coronary heart disease in the Normative Aging Study.  Am J Cardiol . 2000;  86 145-149
• 147 Williams J E, Paton C C, Siegler I C. Anger proneness predicts coronary heart disease risk: prospective analysis from the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study.  Circulation . 2000;  101 2034-2039
• 148 Kop W J, Appels A, de Leon F C. Vital exhaustion predicts new cardiac events after successful coronary angioplasty.  Psychosom Med . 1994;  56 281-287
• 149 Appels A, Kop W, Bar F. Vital exhaustion, extent of atherosclerosis, and the clinical course after successful percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty.  Eur Heart J . 1995;  16 1880-1885
• 150 Mendes de Leon F C, Kop W J, de Swart B H. Psychosocial characteristics and recurrent events after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty.  Am J Cardiol . 1996;  77 252-255