Current Issues and Treatment of Fulminant Hepatic Failure including Transplantation in Hong Kong and the Far East

Vincent C. C. Cheng; Chung-mau Lo; George K. K. Lau

doi:10.1055/s-2003-42642

Seminars in Liver Disease, Table of Contents

Semin Liver Dis 2003; 23(3): 239-250
DOI: 10.1055/s-2003-42642

Current Issues and Treatment of Fulminant Hepatic Failure including Transplantation in Hong Kong and the Far East

Vincent C.C. Cheng¹ , Chung-mau Lo² , George K.K. Lau³

¹Hon. Assistant Professor Department of Microbiology Center for the Study of Liver Disease University of Hong Kong Medical Center Queen Mary Hospital Hong Kong SAR China
²Department of Surgery Center for the Study of Liver Disease University of Hong Kong Medical Center Queen Mary Hospital Hong Kong SAR China
³Department of Medicine Center for the Study of Liver Disease University of Hong Kong Medical Center Queen Mary Hospital Hong Kong SAR China

Abstract

ABSTRACT

In the Far East, fulminant hepatic failure is mainly due to viral hepatitis. In areas where hepatitis B infection is endemic, exacerbation of chronic hepatitis B infection, either spontaneously or on withdrawal of immunosuppressive therapy, is the major cause of fulminant hepatic failure. For hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)-positive patients treated with intense immunosuppressive or cytotoxic therapy, preemptive use of lamivudine has drastically reduced the incidence of hepatitis due to hepatitis B exacerbation. Recently, the application of orthotopic liver transplantation, in particular living donor liver transplantation, has markedly improved the survival of patients with fulminant hepatic failure. In Hong Kong, the phenomenon of adoptive transfer of immunity to hepatitis B virus in liver transplantation has recently been reported. The mechanisms by which transfer of immunity occurs and its potential relationship with grafts from living related donors should be further explored.

KEYWORDS

Far East - fulminant hepatic failure - hepatitis B infection - liver transplantation

Full Text

References

REFERENCES

1 Ostapowicz G, Lee W M. Acute hepatic failure: a Western perspective. J Gastroenterol Hepatol . 2000; 15 480-488
2 Bowen D G, Shackel N A, McCaughan G W. East meets West: acute liver failure in the global village. J Gastroenterol Hepatol . 2000; 15 467-469
3 Lau G K. Hepatitis B infection in China. Clinics in Liver Disease . 2001; 5 361-379
4 Acharya S K, Dasarathy S, Kumer T L. et al . Fulminant hepatitis in a tropical population: clinical course, cause, and early predictors of outcome. Hepatology . 1996; 23 1448-1455
5 Meyer R A, Duffy M C. Spontaneous reactivation of chronic hepatitis B infection leading to fulminant hepatic failure. Report of two cases and review of the literature. J Clin Gastroenterol . 1993; 17 231-234
6 Xunrong L, Yan A W, Liang R, Lau G KK. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) reactivation after cytotoxic or immunosuppressive therapy-pathogenesis and management. Reviews in Medical Virology . 2001; 11 1-14
7 Leifeld L, Cheng S, Ramakers J. et al . Imbalanced intrahepatic expression of interleukin 12, interferon gamma, and interleukin 10 in fulminant hepatitis B. Hepatology . 2002; 36 1001-1008
8 Makuuchi M, Kawarazaki H, Iwanaka T. et al . Living related liver transplantation. Surg Today . 1992; 22 297-300
9 Yamaoka Y, Washida M, Honda K. et al . Liver transplantation using a right lobe graft from a living related donor. Transplantation . 1994; 57 1127-1130
10 Lo C M, Chan K L, Fan S T. et al . Living donor liver transplantation: the Hong Kong experience. Transplant Proc . 1996; 28 2390-2392
11 Chan T Y. Fulminant hepatic failure due to acetaminophen poisoning may be less common in Hong Kong. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol . 2001; 39 175-177
12 Fan S T, Lo C M, Lo R J. et al . Management of fulminant hepatic failure at Queen Mary Hospital. Chin Med J (Engl) . 1997; 110 482-484
13 Ostapowicz G, Fontana R J, Schiodt F V. et al . US Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Results of a prospective study of acute liver failure at 17 tertiary care centers in the United States. Ann Intern Med . 2002; 17(137) 947-954
14 Singh J, Garg P K, Tandon R K. Hepatotoxicity due to antituberculosis therapy. Clinical profile and reintroduction of therapy. J Clin Gastroenterol . 1996; 22 211-214
15 Chu C M, Liaw Y F. The incidence of fulminant hepatic failure in acute viral hepatitis in Taiwan: increased risk in patients with pre-existing HBsAg carrier state. Infection . 1990; 18 200-203
16 Takahashi Y, Shimizu M. Aetiology and prognosis of fulminant viral hepatitis in Japan: a multicentre study. The Study Group of Fulminant Hepatitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol . 1991; 6 159-164
17 Chu C M, Liaw Y F. The incidence of fulminant hepatic failure in acute viral hepatitis in Taiwan: increased risk in patients with pre-existing HBsAg carrier state. Infection . 1990; 18 200-203
18 Fujiwara K, Mochida S. Indications and criteria for liver transplantation for fulminant hepatic failure. J Gastroenterol . 2002; 37(Suppl 13) 74-77
19 Kao J H, Hsu H M, Shau W Y. et al . Universal hepatitis B vaccination and the decreased mortality from fulminant hepatitis in infants in Taiwan. J Pediatr . 2001; 139 349-352
20 Lau G K, Williams R. HCV in hepatic failure: West and East do not meet. Gut . 1999; 45 481-482
21 Wright T L, Mamish D, Combs C. et al . Hepatitis B virus and apparent fulminant non-A, non-B hepatitis. Lancet . 1992; 339 952-955
22 Liang T J, Jeffers L, Reddy R K. et al . Fulminant or subfulminant non-A, non-B viral hepatitis: the role of hepatitis C and E viruses. Gastroenterology . 1993; 104 556-562
23 Feray C, Gigou M, Samuel D. et al . Hepatitis C virus RNA and hepatitis B virus DNA in serum and liver of patients with fulminant hepatitis. Gastroenterology . 1993; 104 549-555
24 Sallie R, Silva A E, Purdy M. et al . Hepatitis C and E in non-A non-B fulminant hepatic failure: a polymerase chain reaction and serological study. J Hepatol . 1994; 20 580-588
25 Muto Y, Sugihara J, Ohnishi H. et al . Anti-hepatitis C virus antibody prevails in fulminant hepatic failure. Gastroenterol Jpn . 1990; 25 32-35
26 Yanagi M, Kaneko S, Unoura M. et al . Hepatitis C virus in fulminant hepatic failure. N Engl J Med . 1991; 324 1895-1896
27 Chu C M, Sheen I S, Liaw Y F. The role of hepatitis C virus in fulminant viral hepatitis in an area with endemic hepatitis A and B. Gastroenterology . 1994; 107 189-195
28 Wu J C, Chen C L, Hou M C. et al . Multiple viral infection as the most common cause of fulminant and subfulminant viral hepatitis in an area endemic for hepatitis B: Application and limitations of the polymerase chain reaction. Hepatology . 1994; 19 836-840
29 Zhao Y R, Zhang D F, Pan C Q. An etiological study on fulminant viral hepatitis. Chin J Int Med . 1992; 31 686-688
30 Liaw Y F, Tsai S L, Chang J J. et al . Displacement of hepatitis B virus by hepatitis C virus as the cause of continuing chronic hepatitis. Gastroenterology . 1994; 106 1048-1053
31 Lau G KK, Wu P C, Lo C K. et al . Histological changes of concurrent hepatitis C virus infection in asymptomatic hepatitis B virus patients. J Gastroenterol Hepatol . 1998; 13 52-56
32 Masada C T, Shaw Jr W B, Zetterman R K. et al . Fulminant hepatic failure with massive necrosis as a result of hepatitis A infection. J Clin Gastroenterol . 1993; 17 158-162
33 Coursaget P, Buisson Y, N'Gawara M N. et al . Role of hepatitis E virus in sporadic cases of acute and fulminant hepatitis in an endemic area (Chad). Am J Trop Med Hyg . 1998; 58 330-334
34 Nanda S K, Yalcinkaya K, Panigrahi A K. et al . Etiological role of hepatitis E virus in sporadic fulminant hepatitis. J Med Virol . 1994; 42 133-137
35 Lau J Y, Sallie R, Fang J W. et al . Detection of hepatitis E virus genome and gene products in two patients with fulminant hepatitis E. J Hepatol . 1995; 22 605-610
36 Liang T J, Jeffers L, Reddy R K. et al . Fulminant or subfulminant non-A, non-B viral hepatitis: the role of hepatitis C and E viruses. Gastroenterology . 1993; 104 556-562
37 Lee W S, Kelly D A, Tanner M S. et al . Neonatal liver transplantation for fulminant hepatitis caused by herpes simplex virus type 2. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr . 2002; 35 220-223
38 Pinna A D, Rakela J, Demetris A J, Fung J J. Five cases of fulminant hepatitis due to herpes simplex virus in adults. Dig Dis Sci . 2002; 47 750-754
39 Farr R W, Short S, Weissman D. Fulminant hepatitis during herpes simplex virus infection in apparently immunocompetent adults: report of two cases and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis . 1997; 24 1191-1194
40 Asano Y, Yoshikawa T, Suga S. et al . Fatal fulminant hepatitis in an infant with human herpesvirus-6 infection. Lancet . 1990; 335 862-863
41 Sokal E M, Melchior M, Cornu C. et al . Acute parvovirus B19 infection associated with fulminant hepatitis of favourable prognosis in young children. Lancet . 1998; 352 1739-1741
42 Masia M, Gutierrez F, Jimeno A. et al . Fulminant hepatitis and fatal toxic epidermal necrolysis (Lyell disease) coincident with clarithromycin administration in an alcoholic patient receiving disulfiram therapy. Arch Intern Med . 2002; 162 474-476
43 Chalasani P, Baffoe-Bonnie H, Jurado R L. Dapsone therapy causing sulfone syndrome and lethal hepatic failure in an HIV-infected patient. South Med J . 1994; 87 1145-1146
44 Bourliere M, Bernuau J, Rueff B, Benhamou J P. Quinidine phenylethylbarbiturate-induced fulminant hepatitis in a pregnant woman. A case report. J Hepatol . 1988; 6 214-216
45 van Aalderen M W, Knoester H, Knol K. Fulminant hepatitis during treatment with rifampicin, pyrazinamid and ethambutol. Eur J Pediatr . 1987; 146 290-291
46 Bartelink A K, Lenders J W, van Herwaarden L C. et al . Fatal hepatitis after treatment with isoniazid and rifampicin in a patient on anticonvulsant therapy. Tubercle . 1983; 64 125-128
47 Serious adverse events attributed to nevirapine regimens for postexposure prophylaxis after HIV exposures-worldwide, 1997-2000 MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep . 2001; 49 1153-1156
48 Lacaille F, Ortigao M B, Debre M. et al . Hepatic toxicity associated with 2'-3' dideoxyinosine in children with AIDS. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr . 1995; 20 287-290
49 Breuer H W, Bossek W, Haferland C. et al . Amiodarone-induced severe hepatitis mediated by immunological mechanisms. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther . 1998; 36 350-352
50 Seggie J, Saunders S J, Kirsch R E. et al . Patterns of hepatic injury induced by methyldopa. S Afr Med J . 1979; 55 75-83
51 Assal F, Spahr L, Hadengue A. et al . Tolcapone and fulminant hepatitis. Lancet . 1998; 352 958
52 Macfarlane B, Davies S, Mannan K. et al . Fatal acute fulminant liver failure due to clozapine: a case report and review of clozapine-induced hepatotoxicity. Gastroenterology . 1997; 112 1707-1709
53 Colletti R B, Trainer T D, Krawisz B R. Reversible valproate fulminant hepatic failure. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr . 1986; 5 990-994
54 Danan G, Bernuau J, Moullot X. et al . Amitriptyline-induced fulminant hepatitis. Digestion . 1984; 30 179-184
55 Johnstone D, Berger C, Fleckman P. Acute fulminant hepatitis after treatment with rabeprazole and terbinafine. Arch Intern Med . 2001; 161 1677-1678
56 Andrade R J, Lucena M I. Acute fulminant hepatitis after treatment with rabeprazole and terbinafine: is rabeprazole the culprit?. Arch Intern Med . 2002; 162 360-361
57 Gasbarrini G, Gentiloni N, Febbraro S. et al . Acute liver injury related to the use of niperotidine. J Hepatol . 1997; 27 583-586
58 Wagayama H, Shiraki K, Sugimoto K. et al . Fatal fulminant hepatic failure associated with benzbromarone. J Hepatol . 2000; 32 874
59 Shibuya A, Watanabe M, Fujita Y. et al . An autopsy case of troglitazone-induced fulminant hepatitis. Diabetes Care . 1998; 21 2140-2143
60 Deidiker R, deMello D E. Propylthiouracil-induced fulminant hepatitis: case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Pathol Lab Med . 1996; 16 845-852
61 Mihas A A, Holley P, Koff R S, Hirschowitz B I. Fulminant hepatitis and lymphocyte sensitization due to propylthiouracil. Gastroenterology . 1976; 70 770-774
62 Epeirier J M, Pageaux G P, Coste V. et al . Fulminant hepatitis after carbimazole and propranolol administration. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol . 1996; 8 287-288
63 Friedman G, Lamoureux E, Sherker A H. Fatal fulminant hepatic failure due to cyproterone acetate. Dig Dis Sci . 1999; 44 1362-1363
64 Ohana M, Hajiro K, Takakuwa H, Okazaki K. Recovery from diclofenac-induced hypersensitive fulminant hepatitis and prostaglandins. Dig Dis Sci . 1997; 42 2031-2032
65 Danan G, Trunet P, Bernuau J. et al . Pirprofen-induced fulminant hepatitis. Gastroenterology . 1985; 89 210-213
66 Purdum 3rd P P, Shelden S L, Boyd J W, Shiffman M L. Oxaprozin-induced fulminant hepatitis. Ann Pharmacother . 1994; 28 1159-1161
67 Gordon D W, Rosenthal G, Hart J. et al . Chaparral ingestion. The broadening spectrum of liver injury caused by herbal medications. JAMA . 1995; 273 489-490
68 Mattei A, Rucay P, Samuel D. et al . Liver transplantation for severe acute liver failure after herbal medicine (Teucrium polium) administration. J Hepatol . 1995; 22 597
69 Bakerink J A, Gospe Jr M S, Dimand R J, Eldridge M W. Multiple organ failure after ingestion of pennyroyal oil from herbal tea in two infants. Pediatrics . 1996; 98 944-947
70 Hullar T E, Sapers B L, Ridker P M. et al . Herbal toxicity and fatal hepatic failure. Am J Med . 1999; 106 267-268
71 Whiting P W, Clouston A, Kerlin P. Black cohosh and other herbal remedies associated with acute hepatitis. Med J Aust . 2002; 177 440-443
72 Mels G C, Bellati G, Leandro G. et al . Fluctuations in viremia, aminotransferases and IgM antibody to hepatitis B core antigen in chronic hepatitis B patients with disease exacerbations. Liver . 1994; 14 175-181
73 Perrillo R P. Acute flares in chronic hepatitis B: the natural and unnatural history of an immunologically mediated liver disease. Gastroenterology . 2001; 120 1009-1022
74 Lau G K, Wang B, Carman W. Immunological approaches to the breakdown of hepatitis B viral persistence. Chin Med J (Engl) . 1998; 111 560-564
75 Perrillo R P, Campbell C R, Sanders G E. et al . Spontaneous clearance and reactivation of hepatitis B virus infection among male homosexuals with chronic type B hepatitis. Ann Intern Med . 1984; 100 43-46
76 Hoofnagle J H, Seeff L B. Natural history of chronic type B hepatitis. Prog Liver Dis . 1982; 7 469-479
77 Carman W F, Fagan E A, Hadziyannis S. et al . Association of a precore genomic variant of hepatitis B virus with fulminant hepatitis. Hepatology . 1991; 14 219-222
78 Ehata T, Omata M, Chuang W L. et al . Mutations in core nucleotide sequence of hepatitis B virus correlate with fulminant and severe hepatitis. J Clin Invest . 1993; 91 1206-1213
79 Kaneko M, Uchida T, Moriyama M. et al . Probable implication of mutations of the X open reading frame in the onset of fulminant hepatitis B. J Med Virol . 1995; 47 204-208
80 Sato S, Suzuki K, Akahane Y. et al . Hepatitis B virus strains with mutations in the core promoter in patients with fulminant hepatitis. Ann Intern Med . 1995; 122 241-248
81 Friedt M, Gerner P, Lausch E. et al . Mutations in the basic core promotor and the precore region of hepatitis B virus and their selection in children with fulminant and chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology . 1999; 29 1252-1258
82 Pollicino T, Zanetti A R, Cacciola I. et al . Pre-S2 defective hepatitis B virus infection in patients with fulminant hepatitis. Hepatology . 1997; 26 495-499
83 Sterneck M, Kalinina T, Gunther S. et al . Functional analysis of HBV genomes from patients with fulminant hepatitis. Hepatology . 1998; 28 1390-1397
84 Omata M, Ehata T, Yokosuka O. et al . Mutations in the precore region of hepatitis B virus DNA in patients with fulminant and severe hepatitis. N Engl J Med . 1991; 324 1699-1704
85 Kosaka Y, Takase K, Kojima M. et al . Fulminant hepatitis B: induction by hepatitis B virus mutants defective in the precore region and incapable of encoding e antigen. Gastroenterology . 1991; 100 1087-1094
86 Liang T J, Hasegawa K, Rimon N. et al . A hepatitis B virus mutant associated with an epidemic of fulminant hepatitis. N Engl J Med . 1991; 324 1705-1709
87 Hsu H Y, Chang M H, Lee C Y. et al . Precore mutant of hepatitis B virus in childhood fulminant hepatitis B: an infrequent association. J Infect Dis . 1995; 171 776-781
88 Feray C, Gigou M, Samuel D. et al . Low prevalence of precore mutations in hepatitis B virus DNA in fulminant hepatitis B in France. J Hepatol . 1993; 18 119-122
89 Laskus T, Persing D H, Nowicki M J. et al . Nucleotide sequence analysis of the precore region in patients with fulminant hepatitis B in the United States. Gastroenterology . 1993; 105 1173-1178
90 Brunetto M R, Giarin M M, Oliveri F. et al . Wild-type and e antigen-minus hepatitis B viruses and course of chronic hepatitis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 1991; 88 4186-4190
91 Hunt C M, McGill J M, Allen M I, Condreay L D. Clinical relevance of hepatitis B viral mutations. Hepatology . 2000; 31 1037-1044
92 Inoue K, Yoshiba M, Sekiyama K. et al . Clinical and molecular virological differences between fulminant hepatic failures following acute and chronic infection with hepatitis B virus. J Med Virol . 1998; 55 35-41
93 Lok A S, Heatgcote E J, Hoofnagle J H. Management of hepatitis B: 2000-summary of a workshop. Gastreoenterology . 2001; 120 1828-1853
94 Ayres A, Bartholomeusz A, Lau G K. et al . Lamivudine and famciclovir resistant hepatitis B virus with mutations in basal core promoter and X protein associated with severe and fatal liver disease. J Clin Virol . 2003; 27 111-116
95 Bonacini M, Kurz A, Locarnini S. et al . Fulminant hepatitis B due to a lamivudine-resistant mutant of HBV in a patient coinfected with HIV. Gastroenterology . 2002; 122 244-245
96 Lau G K, He M L, Fong D Y. et al . Preemptive use of lamivudine reduces hepatitis B exacerbation after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Hepatology . 2002; 36 702-709
97 Chisari F V, Ferrari C. Hepatitis B virus immunopathogenesis. Annu Rev Immunol . 1995; 13 29
98 Kimura K, Ando K, Tomita E. et al . Elevated intracellular IFN-gamma levels in circulating CD8+ lymphocytes in patients with fulminant hepatitis. J Hepatol . 1999; 31 579-583
99 Suzuki K, Endo R, Nakamura N. et al . Serum level of soluble Fas ligand in patients with acute and fulminant hepatitis: relationship with soluble Fas, tumor necorsis factor α and TNF receptor I. Hepatol Res . 2000; 17 19-30
100 Nagaki M, Iwai H, Naiki T. et al . High levels of serum interleukin-10 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha are associated with fatality in fulminant hepatitis. J Infect Dis . 2000; 182 1103-1108
101 Tur-Kaspa R, Burk R D, Shaul Y, Shafritz D A. Hepatitis B virus DNA contains a glucocorticoid-responsive element. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 1986; 83 1627-1631
102 Cheng V C, Yuen K Y, Wong S S. et al . Immunorestitution diseases in patients not infected with HIV. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis . 2001; 20 402-406
103 McIvor C, Morton J, Bryant A. et al . Fatal reactivation of precore mutant hepatitis B virus associated with fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis after bone marrow transplantation. Ann Intern Med . 1994; 121 274-275
104 Caselitz M, Link H, Hein R. et al . Hepatitis B associated liver failure following bone marrow transplantation. J Hepatol . 1997; 27 572-577
105 Galbraith R M, Eddleston A L, Williams R, Zuckerman A J. Fulminant hepatic failure in leukaemia and choriocarcinoma related to withdrawal of cytotoxic drug therapy. Lancet . 1975; 2 528-530
106 Thung S N, Gerber M A, Klion F, Gilbert H. Massive hepatic necrosis after chemotherapy withdrawal in a hepatitis B virus carrier. Arch Intern Med . 1985; 145 1313-1314
107 Bird G L, Smith H, Portmann B. et al . Acute liver decompensation on withdrawal of cytotoxic chemotherapy and immunosuppressive therapy in hepatitis B carriers. QJM . 1989; 73 895-902
108 Lau J Y, Lai C L, Lin H J. et al . Fatal reactivation of chronic hepatitis B virus infection following withdrawal of chemotherapy in lymphoma patients. QJM . 1989; 73 911-917
109 Pinto P C, Hu E, Bernstein-Singer M. et al . Acute hepatic injury after the withdrawal of immunosuppressive chemotherapy in patients with hepatitis B. Cancer . 1990; 65 878-884
110 Carman W F, Korula J, Wallace L. et al . Fulminant reactivation of hepatitis B due to envelope protein mutant that escaped detection by monoclonal HBsAg ELISA. Lancet . 1995; 345 1406-1407
111 Wong G C, Tan P, Goh Y T. et al . Exacerbation of hepatitis in hepatitis B carriers following chemotherapy for haematological malignancies. Ann Acad Med Singapore . 1996; 25 500-503
112 Steinberg J L, Yeo W, Zhong S. et al . Hepatitis B virus reactivation in patients undergoing cytotoxic chemotherapy for solid tumours: precore/core mutations may play an important role. J Med Virol . 2000; 60 249-255
113 Onwubalili J K. Fulminant hepatic failure in nephrotic syndrome related to withdrawal of immunosuppressive therapy. Postgrad Med J . 1988; 64 325-327
114 Duclos-Vallee J C, Laurent-Puig P, Loriot M A. et al . Fatal reactivation of hepatitis B virus mutant following cytotoxic treatment. J Hepatol . 1994; 21 1152
115 Flowers M A, Heathcote J, Wanless I R. et al . Fulminant hepatitis as a consequence of reactivation of hepatitis B virus infection after discontinuation of low-dose methotrexate therapy. Ann Intern Med . 1990; 112 381-382
116 Ito S, Nakazono K, Murasawa A. et al . Development of fulminant hepatitis B (precore variant mutant type) after the discontinuation of low-dose methotrexate therapy in a rheumatoid arthritis patient. Arthritis Rheum . 2001; 44 339-342
117 Lau G K, Leung Y H, Fong D Y. et al . High hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA viral load as the most important risk factor for HBV reactivation in patients positive for HBV surface antigen undergoing autologous hematopoietic cell transplantation. Blood . 2002; 99 2324-2330
118 Lau G K, He M L, Fong D Y. et al . Preemptive use of lamivudine reduces hepatitis B exacerbation after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation. Hepatology . 2002; 36 702-709
119 Chan T M, Fang G X, Tang C S. et al . Preemptive lamivudine therapy based on HBV DNA level in HBsAg-positive kidney allograft recipients. Hepatology . 2002; 36 1246-1252
120 Levin S, Leibowitz E, Torten J, Hahn T. Interferon treatment in acute progressive and fulminant hepatitis. Isr J Med Sci . 1989; 25 364-372
121 Rakela J, Mosley J W, Edwards V M. et al . A double-blinded, randomized trial of hydrocortisone in acute hepatic failure. The Acute Hepatic Failure Study Group. Dig Dis Sci . 1991; 36 1223-1228
122 Trey C, Davidson C. The management of fulminant hepatic failure. In: Shaffer F, Popper H, eds. Progress in Liver Disease, Vol 3. New York: Grune & Stratton 1970: 282-290
123 Chapman R W, Forman D, Peto R, Smallwood R. Liver transplantation for acute hepatic failure. Lancet . 1990; 335 32-35
124 Iwatsuki S, Steiber A C, Marsh J W. et al . Liver transplantation for fulminant hepatic failure. Transplant Proc . 1989; 21 2431-2434
125 Vickers C, Neuberger J, Buckels J, McMaster P, Elias E. Transplantation of liver in adults and children with fulminant hepatic failure. J Hepatol . 1988; 7 143-150
126 Bismuth H, Samuel D, Castaing D. et al . Orthotopic liver transplantation in fulminant and subfulminant hepatitis. Ann Surg . 1995; 222 109-119
127 Lo C M, Fan S T, Liu C L. et al . Ten-year experience with liver transplantation at Queen Mary Hospital: retrospective study. Hong Kong Med J . 2002; 8 240-244
128 Uemoto S, Inomata Y, Sakurai T. et al . Living donor liver transplantation for fulminant hepatic failure. Transplantation . 2000; 70 152-157
129 Lo C M, Fan S T, Liu C L. et al . Applicability of living donor liver transplantation to high-urgency patients. Transplantation . 1999; 67 73-77
130 Wang S H, Chen C L, Chen Y S. et al . Living donor liver transplantation: the Kaohsiung experience. Transplant Proc . 2000; 32 2137-2138
131 Wai C T, Lo S K, Lee K H. et al . Ten years of experience of liver transplantation in Singapore. Transplant Proc . 2000; 32 2139
132 Lee S G, Park K M, Hwang S. et al . Adult-to-adult living donor liver transplantation at the Asian Medical Center, Korea. Asian J Surg . 2002; 25 277-284
133 Kawasaki S, Makuuchi M, Matsunami H. et al . Living related liver transplantation in adults. Ann Surg . 1998; 227 269-274
134 Lo C M, Fan S T, Chan J KF. et al . Minimum GV for successful adult-to-adult living donor liver transplantation for fulminant hepatic failure. Transplantation . 1996; 62 696-698
135 Kawasaki S, Makuuchi M, Matsunami H. et al . Preoperative measurement of segmental liver volume of donors for living related liver transplantation. Hepatology . 1993; 18 1115-1120
136 Williams R, Alisa A, Karani J. et al . Living related adult-to-adult liver transplantation: meeting the donor shortage. Antiviral Res . 2001; 52 217-223
137 Fan S T, Lo C M, Liu C L. Technical refinement in adult-to-adult living donor liver transplantation using right lobe graft. Ann Surg . 2000; 231 126-131
138 Fan S T, Lo C M, Liu C L. et al . Safety of donors in live donor liver transplantation using right lobe grafts. Arch Surg . 2000; 135 336-340
139 Liu C L, Fan S T, Lo C M. et al . Right-lobe live donor liver transplantation improves survival of patients with acute liver failure. Br J Surg . 2002; 89 317-322
140 Todo S, Demetris A J, Van Thiel D. et al . Orthotopic liver transplantation for patients with hepatitis B virus-related liver disease. Hepatology . 1991; 13 619-626
141 Fang J W, Tung F Y, Davis G L. et al . Fibrosing cholestatic hepatitis in a transplant recipient with hepatitis B virus precore mutant. Gastroenterology . 1993; 105 901-904
142 Samuel D, Muller R, Alexander G. et al . Liver transplantation in European patients with the hepatitis B surface antigen. N Engl J Med . 1993; 329 1842-1847
143 Shouval D, Samuel D. Hepatitis B immune globulin to prevent HBV graft reinfection following liver transplantation: a concise review. Hepatology . 2000; 32 1189-1195
144 Lo C M, Fung J T, Lau G K. et al . Development of antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen after liver transplantation for chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology . 2003; 37 36-43
145 Ilan Y, Nagler A, Adler R. et al . Adoptive transfer of immunity to hepatitis B virus after T cell-depleted allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Hepatology . 1993; 18 246-252
146 Shouval D, Ilan Y. Transplantation of hepatitis B immune lymphocytes as means for adoptive transfer as means for adoptive transfer of immunity to hepatitis B virus. J Hepatol . 1995; 23 98-101
147 Castells L, Esteban R. Hepatitis B vaccination in liver transplant candidates. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol . 2001; 13 359-361
148 Bienzle U, Gunther M, Neuhaus R, Neuhaus P. Successful hepatitis B vaccination in patients who underwent transplantation for hepatitis B virus-related cirrhosis: preliminary results. Liver Transpl . 2002; 8 562-564
149 Ben-Ari Z, Daudi N, Klein A. et al . Genotypic and phenotypic resistance: longitudinal and sequential analysis of hepatitis B virus polymerase mutations in patients with lamivudine resistance after liver transplantation. Am J Gastroenterol . 2003; 98 151-159
150 Perrillo R, Schiff E, Yoshida E. et al . Adefovir dipivoxil for the treatment of lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B mutants. Hepatology . 2000; 32 129-134
151 Wai C T, Lim S G, Tan K C. Outcome of lamivudine resistant hepatitis B virus infection in liver transplant recipients in Singapore. Gut . 2000; 47 741
152 Mutimer D, Pillay D, Shields P. et al . Outcome of lamivudine resistant hepatitis B virus infection in the liver transplant recipient. Gut . 2000; 46 107-113