Download PDF
Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 2004; 08(4): 329-353
DOI: 10.1055/s-2004-861579
Copyright © 2004 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001 USA.

Measuring Cartilage Morphology with Quantitative Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Felix Eckstein1 , 2 , Christian Glaser3
  • 1Institute of Anatomy and Musculoskeletal Research, Paracelsus Private Medical University Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
  • 2Chondrometrics GmbH, Ainring, Germany
  • 3Institute of Clinical Radiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Munich, Germany
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
10 January 2005 (online)

Also available at
    Permissions and Reprints

ABSTRACT

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a three-dimensional imaging technique with unparalleled ability to delineate articular cartilage morphology in health and disease. In this article we will review work on the assessment of cartilage morphology with quantitative magnetic resonance imaging and its relevance to the study of cartilage anatomy, physiology, deformation, disease status, disease progression, and response to treatment. The review outlines available pulse sequences and techniques for segmentation and morphological analysis of cartilage morphology. It addresses the accuracy (validity) and precision (reproducibility) of these techniques and summarizes studies on cartilage deformation in intact joints. This article will also review work on determinants and functional adaptation of cartilage morphology and describe changes seen in osteoarthritis. We conclude that fat-suppressed or water excitation gradient-echo magnetic resonance sequences and state-of-the-art digital image analysis techniques display high accuracy and adequate precision for quantitative assessment of cartilage morphology. This renders these techniques powerful and promising tools for cartilage and osteoarthritis research.

KEYWORDS

Cartilage - morphology - magnetic resonance imaging - osteoarthritis

REFERENCES

  • 1 Bergmann G, Graichen F, Rohlmann A. Hip joint loading during walking and running, measured in two patients.  J Biomech. 1993;  26 969-990
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Mow V C, Holmes M H, Lai W M. Fluid transport and mechanical properties of articular cartilage: a review.  J Biomech. 1984;  17 377-394
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Mow V C, Ateshian G A, Spilker R L. Biomechanics of diarthrodial joints: a review of twenty years of progress.  J Biomech Eng. 1993;  115 460-467
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Ateshian G A, Wang H. Rolling resistance of articular cartilage due to interstitial fluid flow.  Proc Inst Mech Eng [H]. 1997;  211 419-424
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Hills B A. Boundary lubrication in vivo.  Proc Inst Mech Eng [H]. 2000;  214 83-94
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Jin Z M, Pickard J E, Forster H et al.. Frictional behaviour of bovine articular cartilage.  Biorheology. 2000;  37 57-63
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Buckwalter J A, Mankin H J. Articular cartilage: tissue design and chondrocyte-matrix interactions.  Instr Course Lect. 1998;  47 477-486
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Hunziker E B, Quinn T M, Hauselmann H J. Quantitative structural organization of normal adult human articular cartilage.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2002;  10 564-572
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Hunziker E B. Articular cartilage repair: basic science and clinical progress. A review of the current status and prospects.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2002;  10 432-463
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Buckwalter J A, Mankin H J. Articular cartilage: degeneration and osteoarthritis, repair, regeneration, and transplantation.  Instr Course Lect. 1998;  47 487-504
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Felson D T, Zhang Y, Hannan M T et al.. The incidence and natural history of knee osteoarthritis in the elderly. The Framingham Osteoarthritis Study.  Arthritis Rheum. 1995;  38 1500-1505
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Link T M, Steinbach L S, Ghosh S et al.. Osteoarthritis: MR imaging findings in different stages of disease and correlation with clinical findings.  Radiology. 2003;  226 373-381
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Beuf O, Ghosh S, Newitt D C et al.. Magnetic resonance imaging of normal and osteoarthritic trabecular bone structure in the human knee.  Arthritis Rheum. 2002;  46 385-393
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Heine J. Über die Arthritis deformans.  Arch Path Anat. 1926;  260 521-610
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Peyron J G. Osteoarthritis. The epidemiologic viewpoint.  Clin Orthop. 1986;  213 13-19
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Yelin E, Callahan L F. The economic cost and social and psychological impact of musculoskeletal conditions. National Arthritis Data Work Groups.  Arthritis Rheum. 1995;  38 1351-1362
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Bradley J D, Brandt K D, Katz B P, Kalasinski L A, Ryan S I. Comparison of an antiinflammatory dose of ibuprofen,an analgesic dose of ibuprofen, and acetaminophen in the treatment of patients with osteoarthritis of the knee.  N Engl J Med. 1991;  325 87-91
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Brittberg M, Lindahl A, Nilsson A et al.. Treatment of deep cartilage defects in the knee with autologous chondrocyte transplantation.  N Engl J Med. 1994;  331 889-895
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Brittberg M, Tallheden T, Sjogren-Jansson B et al.. Autologous chondrocytes used for articular cartilage repair: an update. Clin Orthop 2001 391: S337-S348
    Google Scholar
  • 20 Beary III J F. Joint structure modification in osteoarthritis: development of SMOAD drugs.  Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2001;  3 506-512
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Creamer P, Hochberg M C. Osteoarthritis.  Lancet. 1997;  350 503-508
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Buckland-Wright C. Current status of imaging procedures in the diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring of osteoarthritis.  Baillieres Clin Rheumatol. 1997;  11 727-748
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Vignon E, Conrozier T, Piperno M et al.. Radiographic assessment of hip and knee osteoarthritis. Recommendations: recommended guidelines.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 1999;  7 434-436
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Brandt K D, Mazzuca S A, Conrozier T et al.. Which is the best radiographic protocol for a clinical trial of a structure modifying drug in patients with knee osteoarthritis?.  J Rheumatol. 2002;  29 1308-1320
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Buckland W. Radiographic assessment of osteoarthritis: comparison between existing methodologies.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 1999;  7 430-433
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Wolfe F, Lane N E, Buckland-Wright C. Radiographic methods in knee osteoarthritis: a further comparison of semiflexed (MTP), Schuss-Tunnel, and weight-bearing anteroposterior views for joint space narrowing and osteophytes.  J Rheumatol. 2002;  29 2597-2601
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Peterfy C G. Imaging of the disease process.  Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2002;  14 590-596
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Peterfy C, Li J, Zaim S et al.. Comparison of fixed-flexion positioning with fluoroscopic semi-flexed positioning for quantifying radiographic joint-space width in the knee: test-retest reproducibility.  Skeletal Radiol. 2003;  32 128-132
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Eckstein F, Reiser M, Englmeier K H et al.. In vivo morphometry and functional analysis of human articular cartilage with quantitative magnetic resonance imaging-from image to data, from data to theory.  Anat Embryol (Berl). 2001;  203 147-173
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Buckland-Wright J C, Macfarlane D G, Lynch J A et al.. Joint space width measures cartilage thickness in osteoarthritis of the knee: high resolution plain film and double contrast macroradiographic investigation.  Ann Rheum Dis. 1995;  54 263-268
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Peterfy C G. Scratching the surface: articular cartilage disorders in the knee.  Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am. 2000;  8 409-430
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Peterfy C G. Role of MR imaging in clinical research studies.  Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2001;  5 365-378
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Sumanaweera T, Glover G, Song S et al.. Quantifying MRI geometric distortion in tissue.  Magn Reson Med. 1994;  31 40-47
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Hudelmaier M, Glaser C, Hohe J et al.. Age-related changes in the morphology and deformational behavior of knee joint cartilage.  Arthritis Rheum. 2001;  44 2556-2561
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Graichen H, Springer V, Flaman T et al.. Validation of high-resolution water-excitation magnetic resonance imaging for quantitative assessment of thin cartilage layers.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2000;  8 106-114
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Graichen H, Jakob J, Eisenhart-Rothe R et al.. Validation of cartilage volume and thickness measurements in the human shoulder with quantitative magnetic resonance imaging.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2003;  11 475-482
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Al Ali D, Graichen H, Faber S et al.. Quantitative cartilage imaging of the human hind foot: precision and inter-subject variability.  J Orthop Res. 2002;  20 249-256
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Springer V, Graichen H, Stammberger T et al.. [Noninvasive analysis of cartilage volume and cartilage thickness in the human elbow joint using MRI.]  Anat Anz. 1998;  180 331-338
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Peterfy C G, van Dijke C F, Lu Y et al.. Quantification of the volume of articular cartilage in the metacarpophalangeal joints of the hand: accuracy and precision of three-dimensional MR imaging.  AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1995;  165 371-375
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Burgkart R, Glaser C, Hyhlik-Durr A et al.. Magnetic resonance imaging-based assessment of cartilage loss in severe osteoarthritis: accuracy, precision, and diagnostic value.  Arthritis Rheum. 2001;  44 2072-2077
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Burgkart R, Glaser C, Hinterwimmer S et al.. Feasibility of T and Z scores from magnetic resonance imaging data for quantification of cartilage loss in osteoarthritis.  Arthritis Rheum. 2003;  48 2829-2835
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Hardy P A, Newmark R, Liu Y M et al.. The influence of the resolution and contrast on measuring the articular cartilage volume in magnetic resonance images.  Magn Reson Imaging. 2000;  18 965-972
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Link T M, Majumdar S, Peterfy C et al.. High resolution MRI of small joints: impact of spatial resolution on diagnostic performance and SNR.  Magn Reson Imaging. 1998;  16 147-155
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Marshall K W, Guthrie B T, Mikulis D J. Quantitative cartilage imaging.  Br J Rheumatol. 1995;  34(Suppl 1) 29-31
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Cicuttini F, Forbes A, Asbeutah A et al.. Comparison and reproducibility of fast and conventional spoiled gradient-echo magnetic resonance sequences in the determination of knee cartilage volume.  J Orthop Res. 2000;  18 580-584
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Frahm J, Haase A, Matthaei D. Rapid three-dimensional MR imaging using the FLASH technique.  J Comput Assist Tomogr. 1986;  10 363-368
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Recht M P, Kramer J, Marcelis S et al.. Abnormalities of articular cartilage in the knee: analysis of available MR techniques.  Radiology. 1993;  187 473-478
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Peterfy C G, van Dijke C F, Janzen D L et al.. Quantification of articular cartilage in the knee with pulsed saturation transfer subtraction and fat-suppressed MR imaging: optimization and validation.  Radiology. 1994;  192 485-491
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Eckstein F, Gavazzeni A, Sittek H et al.. Determination of knee joint cartilage thickness using three-dimensional magnetic resonance chondro-crassometry (3D MR-CCM).  Magn Reson Med. 1996;  36 256-265
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Hardy P A, Recht M P, Piraino D W. Fat suppressed MRI of articular cartilage with a spatial-spectral excitation pulse.  J Magn Reson Imaging. 1998;  8 1279-1287
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Glaser C, Faber S, Eckstein F et al.. Optimization and validation of a rapid high-resolution T1-w 3D FLASH water excitation MRI sequence for the quantitative assessment of articular cartilage volume and thickness.  Magn Reson Imaging. 2001;  19 177-185
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Faber S C, Eckstein F, Lukasz S et al.. Gender differences in knee joint cartilage thickness, volume and articular surface areas: assessment with quantitative three-dimensional MR imaging.  Skeletal Radiol. 2001;  30 144-150
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Eckstein F, Winzheimer M, Hohe J et al.. Interindividual variability and correlation among morphological parameters of knee joint cartilage plates: analysis with three-dimensional MR imaging.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2001;  9 101-111
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Stammberger T, Eckstein F, Michaelis M et al.. Interobserver reproducibility of quantitative cartilage measurements: comparison of B-spline snakes and manual segmentation.  Magn Reson Imaging. 1999;  17 1033-1042
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Ateshian G A, Soslowsky L J, Mow V C. Quantitation of articular surface topography and cartilage thickness in knee joints using stereophotogrammetry.  J Biomech. 1991;  24 761-776
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Ateshian G A. A B-spline least-squares surface-fitting method for articular surfaces of diarthrodial joints.  J Biomech Eng. 1993;  115 366-373
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Cohen Z A, McCarthy D M, Kwak S D et al.. Knee cartilage topography, thickness, and contact areas from MRI: in-vitro calibration and in-vivo measurements.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 1999;  7 95-109
    Google Scholar
  • 58 Hohe J, Ateshian G, Reiser M et al.. Surface size, curvature analysis, and assessment of knee joint incongruity with MRI in vivo.  Magn Reson Med. 2002;  47 554-561
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Ateshian G A, Rosenwasser M P, Mow V C. Curvature characteristics and congruence of the thumb carpometacarpal joint: differences between female and male joints.  J Biomech. 1992;  25 591-607
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Ahmad C S, Cohen Z A, Levine W N et al.. Biomechanical and topographic considerations for autologous osteochondral grafting in the knee.  Am J Sports Med. 2001;  29 201-206
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Cohen Z A, Roglic H, Grelsamer R P et al.. Patellofemoral stresses during open and closed kinetic chain exercises. An analysis using computer simulation.  Am J Sports Med. 2001;  29 480-487
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Cohen Z A, Henry J H, McCarthy D M et al.. Computer simulations of patellofemoral joint surgery: patient-specific models for tuberosity transfer.  Am J Sports Med. 2003;  31 87-98
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Heegaard J, Leyvraz P F, Curnier A et al.. The biomechanics of the human patella during passive knee flexion.  J Biomech. 1995;  28 1265-1279
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Eckstein F, Sittek H, Milz S et al.. The potential of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for quantifying articular cartilage thickness-a methodological study.  Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 1995;  10 434-440
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Sittek H, Eckstein F, Gavazzeni A et al.. Assessment of normal patellar cartilage volume and thickness using MRI: an analysis of currently available pulse sequences.  Skeletal Radiol. 1996;  25 55-62
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Eckstein F, Sittek H, Gavazzeni A et al.. Magnetic resonance chondro-crassometry (MR CCM): a method for accurate determination of articular cartilage thickness?.  Magn Reson Med. 1996;  35 89-96
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Eckstein F, Schnier M, Haubner M et al.. Accuracy of cartilage volume and thickness measurements with magnetic resonance imaging.  Clin Orthop. 1998;  352 137-148
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Cohen Z A, Mow V C, Henry J H et al.. Templates of the cartilage layers of the patellofemoral joint and their use in the assessment of osteoarthritic cartilage damage.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2003;  11 569-579
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 McGibbon C A, Trahan C A. Measurement accuracy of focal cartilage defects from MRI and correlation of MRI graded lesions with histology: a preliminary study.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2003;  11 483-493
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Lösch A, Eckstein F, Haubner M et al.. A non-invasive technique for 3-dimensional assessment of articular cartilage thickness based on MRI. Part 1: Development of a computational method.  Magn Reson Imaging. 1997;  15 795-804
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Kshirsagar A A, Watson P J, Tyler J A et al.. Measurement of localized cartilage volume and thickness of human knee joints by computer analysis of three-dimensional magnetic resonance images.  Invest Radiol. 1998;  33 289-299
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Stammberger T, Hohe J, Englmeier K H et al.. Elastic registration of 3D cartilage surfaces from MR image data for detecting local changes in cartilage thickness.  Magn Reson Med. 2000;  44 592-601
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Waterton J C, Solloway S, Foster J E et al.. Diurnal variation in the femoral articular cartilage of the knee in young adult humans.  Magn Reson Med. 2000;  43 126-132
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Lynch J A, Zaim S, Zhao J et al.. Automatic measurement of subtle changes in articular cartilage from MRI of the knee by combining 3D image registration and segmentation.  Proceedings SPIE. 2001;  4322 431-439 , (International Society for Optical Engineering)
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Raynauld J P, Kauffmann C, Beaudoin G et al.. Reliability of a quantification imaging system using magnetic resonance images to measure cartilage thickness and volume in human normal and osteoarthritic knees.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2003;  11 351-360
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Cicuttini F, Forbes A, Morris K et al.. Gender differences in knee cartilage volume as measured by magnetic resonance imaging.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 1999;  7 265-271
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Graichen H, von Eisenhart R, Vogl T, Englmeier K H, Eckstein F. Quantitative assessment of cartilage status in osteoarthritis by quantitative magnetic resonance imaging: technical validation for use in analysis of cartilage volume and further morphologic parameters.  Arthritis Rheum. 2004;  50 811-816
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Buckland-Wright J C. High definition microfocal radiography and quantitation of radiographic features.  Rev Rhum Engl Ed. 1995;  62 608-609
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Adams J G, McAlindon T, Dimasi M et al.. Contribution of meniscal extrusion and cartilage loss to joint space narrowing in osteoarthritis.  Clin Radiol. 1999;  54 502-506
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Gale D R, Chaisson C E, Totterman S M et al.. Meniscal subluxation: association with osteoarthritis and joint space narrowing.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 1999;  7 526-532
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Eckstein F, Adam C, Sittek H et al.. Non-invasive determination of cartilage thickness throughout joint surfaces using magnetic resonance imaging.  J Biomech. 1997;  30 285-289
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Dardzinski B J, Mosher T J, Li S et al.. Spatial variation of T2 in human articular cartilage.  Radiology. 1997;  205 546-550
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Frank L R, Wong E C, Luh W M et al.. Articular cartilage in the knee: mapping of the physiologic parameters at MR imaging with a local gradient coil-preliminary results.  Radiology. 1999;  210 241-246
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Eckstein F, Stammberger T, Priebsch J et al.. Effect of gradient and section orientation on quantitative analysis of knee joint cartilage.  J Magn Reson Imaging. 2000;  11 161-167
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 McGibbon C A, Dupuy D E, Palmer W E et al.. Cartilage and subchondral bone thickness distribution with MR imaging.  Acad Radiol. 1998;  5 20-25
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Glüer C C, Blake G, Lu Y et al.. Accurate assessment of precision errors: how to measure the reproducibility of bone densitometry techniques.  Osteoporos Int. 1995;  5 262-270
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Eckstein F, Heudorfer L, Faber S C et al.. Long-term and resegmentation precision of quantitative cartilage MR imaging (qMRI).  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2002;  10 922-928
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Hyhlik-Dürr A, Faber S, Burgkart R et al.. Precision of tibial cartilage morphometry with a coronal water-excitation MR sequence.  Eur Radiol. 2000;  10 297-303
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Eckstein F, Lemberger B, Stammberger T et al.. Patellar cartilage deformation in vivo after static versus dynamic loading.  J Biomech. 2000;  33 819-825
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Glaser C, Burgkart R, Kutschera A et al.. Femoro-tibial cartilage metrics from coronal MR image data: Technique, test-retest reproducibility and findings in osteoarthritis.  Magn Reson Med. 2003;  50 1229-1236
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Wluka A E, Stuckey S, Snaddon J et al.. The determinants of change in tibial cartilage volume in osteoarthritic knees.  Arthritis Rheum. 2002;  46 2065-2072
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Cicuttini F, Wluka A, Wang Y et al.. Longitudinal study of changes in tibial and femoral cartilage in knee osteoarthritis.  Arthritis Rheum. 2004;  43 321-324
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Glaser C, Draeger M, Englmeier K H et al.. Cartilage loss over two years in femorotibial osteoarthritis.  Radiology. 2002;  225(Suppl) 330 [Abstract]
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Vanwanseele B, Eckstein F, Knecht H et al.. Longitudinal analysis of cartilage atrophy in the knees of spinal cord injured patients.  Arthritis Rheum. 2003;  48 3377-3381
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Wluka A E, Stuckey S, Brand C et al.. Supplementary vitamin e does not affect the loss of cartilage volume in knee osteoarthritis: a 2 year double blind randomized placebo controlled study.  J Rheumatol. 2002;  29 2585-2591
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Cicuttini F M, Forbes A, Yuanyuan W et al.. Rate of knee cartilage loss after partial meniscectomy.  J Rheumatol. 2002;  29 1954-1956
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Gandy S J, Dieppe P A, Keen M C et al.. No loss of cartilage volume over three years in patients with knee osteoarthritis as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2002;  10 929-937
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Raynauld J P, Martel-Pelletier J, Berthiaume M J et al.. Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging evaluation of knee osteoarthritis progression over two years and correlation with clinical symptoms and radiologic changes.  Arthritis Rheum. 2004;  50 476-487
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Stammberger T, Eckstein F, Englmeier K H et al.. Determination of 3D cartilage thickness data from MR imaging: computational method and reproducibility in the living.  Magn Reson Med. 1999;  41 529-556
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Eckstein F, Westhoff J, Sittek H et al.. In vivo reproducibility of three-dimensional cartilage volume and thickness measurements with MR imaging.  AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1998;  170 593-597
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Eckstein F, Tieschky M, Faber S C et al.. Effect of physical exercise on cartilage volume and thickness in vivo: MR imaging study.  Radiology. 1998;  207 243-248
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Tieschky M, Faber S, Haubner M et al.. Repeatability of patellar cartilage thickness patterns in the living, using a fat-suppressed magnetic resonance imaging sequence with short acquisition time and three-dimensional data processing.  J Orthop Res. 1997;  15 808-813
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Herberhold C, Stammberger T, Faber S et al.. An MR-based technique for quantifying the deformation of articular cartilage during mechanical loading in an intact cadaver joint.  Magn Reson Med. 1998;  39 843-850
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Herberhold C, Faber S, Stammberger T et al.. In situ measurement of articular cartilage deformation in intact femoropatellar joints under static loading.  J Biomech. 1999;  32 1287-1295
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Eckstein F, Tieschky M, Faber S et al.. Functional analysis of articular cartilage deformation, recovery, and fluid flow following dynamic exercise in vivo.  Anat Embryol (Berl). 1999;  200 419-424
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Eckstein F, Lemberger B, Stammberger T et al.. Patellar cartilage deformation in vivo after static versus dynamic loading.  J Biomech. 2000;  33 819-825
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Papa E, Cappozzo A. Sit-to-stand motor strategies investigated in able-bodied young and elderly subjects.  J Biomech. 2000;  33 1113-1122
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Takahashi M, Hoshino H, Kushida K et al.. Direct measurement of crosslinks, pyridinoline, deoxypyridinoline, and pentosidine, in the hydrolysate of tissues using high-performance liquid chromatography.  Anal Biochem. 1995;  232 158-162
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Brama P A, TeKoppele J M, Bank R A et al.. Influence of site and age on biochemical characteristics of the collagen network of equine articular cartilage.  Am J Vet Res. 1999;  60 341-345
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Chen A C, Temple M M, Ng D M et al.. Induction of advanced glycation end products and alterations of the tensile properties of articular cartilage.  Arthritis Rheum. 2002;  46 3212-3217
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Saudek D M, Kay J. Advanced glycation endproducts and osteoarthritis.  Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2003;  5 33-40
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Verzijl N, DeGroot J, Ben Z C et al.. Crosslinking by advanced glycation end products increases the stiffness of the collagen network in human articular cartilage: a possible mechanism through which age is a risk factor for osteoarthritis.  Arthritis Rheum. 2002;  46 114-123
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Burstein D, Gray M. New MRI techniques for imaging cartilage.  J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;  85-A(Suppl 2) 70-77
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Sitoci K H, Hudelmaier M, Glaser C et al.. Nocturnal changes of cartilage morphology in healthy subjects.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2003;  11(Suppl. A) S95 , [Abstract]
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Adam C, Eckstein F, Milz S et al.. The distribution of cartilage thickness in the knee-joints of old-aged individuals-measurement by A-mode ultrasound.  Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 1998;  13 1-10
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Jones G, Glisson M, Hynes K et al.. Sex and site differences in cartilage development: a possible explanation for variations in knee osteoarthritis in later life.  Arthritis Rheum. 2000;  43 2543-2549
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Hudelmaier M, Glaser C, Englmeier K H et al.. Correlation of knee-joint cartilage morphology with muscle cross-sectional areas vs. anthropometric variables.  Anat Rec. 2003;  270A 175-184
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Cicuttini F M, Wluka A E, Wang Y et al.. Compartment differences in knee cartilage volume in healthy adults.  J Rheumatol. 2002;  29 554-556
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Cicuttini F M, Wluka A E, Forbes A et al.. Comparison of tibial cartilage volume and radiologic grade of the tibiofemoral joint.  Arthritis Rheum. 2003;  48 682-688
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 Eckstein F, Muller S, Faber S C et al.. Side differences of knee joint cartilage volume, thickness, and surface area, and correlation with lower limb dominance-an MRI-based study.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2002;  10 914-921
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 121 Cicuttini F M, Wluka A E, Stuckey S L. Tibial and femoral cartilage changes in knee osteoarthritis.  Ann Rheum Dis. 2001;  60 977-980
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 122 Meachim G. Effect of age on the thickness of adult articular cartilage at he shoulder joint.  Ann Rheum Dis. 1971;  30 43-46
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 123 Meachim G, Bentley G, Baker R. Effect of age on thickness of adult patellar articular cartilage.  Ann Rheum Dis. 1977;  36 563-568
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 124 Karvonen R L, Negendank W G, Teitge R A et al.. Factors affecting articular cartilage thickness in osteoarthritis and aging.  J Rheumatol. 1994;  21 1310-1318
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 125 Eckstein F, Winzheimer M, Westhoff J et al.. Quantitative relationships of normal cartilage volumes of the human knee joint-assessment by magnetic resonance imaging.  Anat Embryol (Berl). 1998;  197 383-390
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 126 Vanwanseele B, Lucchinietti E, Stussi E. The effects of immobilization on the characteristics of articular cartilage: current concepts and future directions.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2002;  10 408-419
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 127 Newton P M, Mow V C, Gardner T R et al.. Winner of the 1996 Cabaud Award. The effect of lifelong exercise on canine articular cartilage.  Am J Sports Med. 1997;  25 282-287
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 128 Helminen H J, Kiviranta I, Sämänen A M et al.. Effect of motion and load on articular cartilage in animal models. In: Kuettner KE, Schleyerbach R, Peyron JG, Hascall VC Articular Cartilage and Osteoarthritis New York; Raveen Press 1992: 501-510
    Google Scholar
  • 129 Jones G, Ding C, Glisson M et al.. Knee articular cartilage development in children: a longitudinal study of the effect of sex, growth, body composition, and physical activity.  Pediatr Res. 2003;  54 230-236
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 130 Eckstein F, Faber S, Muhlbauer R et al.. Functional adaptation of human joints to mechanical stimuli.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2002;  10 44-50
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 131 Mühlbauer R, Lukasz T S, Faber T S et al.. Comparison of knee joint cartilage thickness in triathletes and physically inactive volunteers based on magnetic resonance imaging and three-dimensional analysis.  Am J Sports Med. 2000;  28 541-546
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 132 Carter D R, Wong M, Orr T E. Musculoskeletal ontogeny, phylogeny, and functional adaptation.  J Biomech. 1991;  24(Suppl 1) 3-16
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 133 Vanwanseele B, Eckstein F, Knecht H et al.. Knee cartilage of spinal cord-injured patients displays progressive thinning in the absence of normal joint loading and movement.  Arthritis Rheum. 2002;  46 2073-2078
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 134 Genant H K, Engelke K, Fuerst T et al.. Noninvasive assessment of bone mineral and structure: state of the art.  J Bone Miner Res. 1996;  11 707-730
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 135 Buckland-Wright J C, Macfarlane D G, Lynch J A et al.. Quantitative microfocal radiography detects changes in OA knee joint space width in patients in placebo controlled trial of NSAID therapy.  J Rheumatol. 1995;  22 937-943
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 136 Cicuttini F, Wluka A, Wang Y et al.. The determinants of change in patella cartilage volume in osteoarthritic knees.  J Rheumatol. 2002;  29 2615-2619
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 137 Piplani M A, Disler D G, McCauley T R et al.. Articular cartilage volume in the knee: semiautomated determination from three-dimensional reformations of MR images.  Radiology. 1996;  198 855-859
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 138 Solloway S, Hutchinson C E, Waterton J C et al.. The use of active shape models for making thickness measurements of articular cartilage from MR images.  Magn Reson Med. 1997;  37 943-952
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 139 Ghosh S, Ries M, Lane N et al.. Segmentation of high resolution articular cartilage MR images.  Transactions of the Orthopedic Res Soc (ORS). 2000;  246 , [Abstract]
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 140 Steines D, Cheng C, Wong A et al.. Segmentation of osteoarthritic femoral cartilage from MR images. Proc of Computer Assisted Radiology and Surgery 14th International Congress 2000: 303-308
    Google Scholar
  • 141 Lynch J A, Zaim S, Zhao J et al.. Cartilage segmentation of 3D MRI scans of the osteoarthritic knee combining juser knowledge and active contours.  Proceedings SPIE. 2000;  3979 925-935 , (International Society for Optical Engineering)
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 142 Kauffmann C, Gravel P, Godbout B et al.. Computer-aided method for quantification of cartilage thickness and volume changes using MRI: validation study using a synthetic model.  IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2003;  50 978-988
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 143 Münsterer O J, Eckstein F, Hahn D et al.. Computer-aided three dimensional assessment of knee-joint cartilage with magnetic resonance imaging.  Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 1996;  11 260-266
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 144 Hardy P A, Nammalwar P, Kuo S. Measuring the thickness of articular cartilage from MR images.  J Magn Reson Imaging. 2001;  13 120-126
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 145 Kladny B, Bail H, Swoboda B et al.. Cartilage thickness measurement in magnetic resonance imaging.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 1996;  4 181-186
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 146 Pilch L, Stewart C, Gordon D et al.. Assessment of cartilage volume in the femorotibial joint with magnetic resonance imaging and 3D computer reconstruction.  J Rheumatol. 1994;  21 2307-2321
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 147 Stammberger T, Herberhold C, Faber S et al.. A method for quantifying time dependent changes in MR signal intensity of articular cartilage as a function of tissue deformation in intact joints. Med Eng Physiol 1998 20: 741-749
    Google Scholar
  • 148 Liess C, Lüsse S, Karger N et al.. Detection of changes in cartilage water content using MRI T2-mapping in vivo.  Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2002;  10 907-913
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 149 Wluka A E, Davis S R, Bailey M et al.. Users of oestrogen replacement therapy have more knee cartilage than non-users.  Ann Rheum Dis. 2001;  60 332-336
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 150 Cicuttini F M, Wluka A E, Wang Y et al.. Compartment differences in knee cartilage volume in healthy adults.  J Rheumatol. 2002;  29 554-556
    PubMedGoogle Scholar

 Unv. Prof. Dr. med.
Felix Eckstein

Institute of Anatomy and Musculoskeletal Research, Paracelsus Private Medical University Salzburg

Strubergasse 21k, A 5020 Salzburg, Austria