Download PDF
CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 · Sleep Sci 2021; 14(03): 245-256
DOI: 10.5935/1984-0063.20200082
REVIEWS

Socioeconomic status and sleep disturbances among pediatric population: a continental systematic review of empirical research

FA Etindele Sosso
1   Department on Global Health and Ecoepidemiology,Redavi Institute, Montréal, Canada.
,
Tommy Khoury
2   Université de Montréal, Faculté de Médecine - Montréal - Québec - Canada.
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
Also available at
   Permissions and Reprints

ABSTRACT

To this day, no consensus has been established on the definition and the conceptualization of the socioeconomic status (SES), since all the available studies on the relation between SES and health did not use the same conceptual framework and operationalization to assess SES. While literature reported that SES markers (such as income, social support networks, education, employment or occupation) influence the health of populations by shaping living conditions; empirical research does not tell us which SES markers affect more strongly the sleep components of the individuals, as well as which sleep disorders (SD) are affected and how. Even though several original studies have tried to assess how changes in socioeconomic status of parents may affect the psychosocial environment and mental health of an individual directly or through his community, no systematic reviews on the influence of SES on children’s sleep are available. This systematic review make an update on the different measures of SES and sleep disturbances used for pediatric population across the different regions of the world. Recommendations for a future standardization of SES measures is proposed, for a better understanding of its influence on sleep disturbances.

Keywords:

Adolescent - Sleep - Child - Social Class - Socioeconomic Factors - Systematic


Publication History

Received: 17 March 2020

Accepted: 24 November 2020

Article published online:
30 November 2023

© 2021. Brazilian Sleep Association. This is an open access article published by Thieme under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonDerivative-NonCommercial License, permitting copying and reproduction so long as the original work is given appropriate credit. Contents may not be used for commercial purposes, or adapted, remixed, transformed or built upon. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

Thieme Revinter Publicações Ltda.
Rua do Matoso 170, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, CEP 20270-135, Brazil

 

  • REFERENCES

  • 1 McEwen BS. Brain on stress: how the social environment gets under the skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 Oct;109(Suppl 2):17180-5.
  • 2 Phelan JC, Link BG, Tehranifar P. Social conditions as fundamental causes of health inequalities: theory, evidence, and policy implications. J Health Soc Behav. 2010 Oct;51(Suppl 1):S28-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510383498
  • 3 Hopton JL, Howie JG, Porter AM. Social indicators of health needs for general practice: a simpler approach. Br J Gen Pract. 1992 Jun;42(359):236-40.
  • 4 Mulatu MS, Schooler C. Causal connections between socio-economic status and health: reciprocal effects and mediating mechanisms. J Health Soc Behav. 2002 Mar;43(1):22-41.
  • 5 Mulatu MS, Schooler C. Longitudinal effects of occupational, psychological, and social background characteristics on health of older workers. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1999;896(1):406-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08155.x
  • 6 Erreygers G, Clarke P, Zheng Q. On the measurement of socioeconomic inequality of health between countries. J Econ Inequal. 2017 Jan;15:175-93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-016-9342-6
  • 7 Bashinskaya B, Nahed BV, Walcott BP, Coumans JVCE, Onuma OK. Socioeconomic status correlates with the prevalence of advanced coronary artery disease in the United States. PLOS One. 2012;7(9):e46314. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0046314
  • 8 Ribet C, Derriennic F. Age, working conditions, and sleep disorders: a longitudinal analysis in the French cohort E.S.T.E.V. Sleep. 1999 Jun;22(4):491-504.
  • 9 Anders MP, Breckenkamp J, Blettner M, Schlehofer B, Berg-Beckhoff G. Association between socioeconomic factors and sleep quality in an urban population-based sample in Germany. Eur J Public Health. 2014 Dec;24(6):968-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckt175
  • 10 Fang SC, Subramanian SV, Piccolo R, Yang M, Yaggi HK, Bliwise DL, et al. Geographic variations in sleep duration: a multilevel analysis from the Boston Area Community Health (BACH) survey. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2015 Mar;69:63-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2013-203256
  • 11 Gosling JA, Batterham PJ, Glozier N, Christensen H. The influence of job stress, social support and health status on intermittent and chronic sleep disturbance: an 8-year longitudinal analysis. Sleep Med. 2014 Aug;15(8):979-85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2014.04.007
  • 12 Haba-Rubio J, Marti-Soler H, Tobback N, Andries D, Marques-Vidal P, Waeber G, et al. Sleep characteristics and cognitive impairment in the general population: the HypnoLaus study. Neurology. 2017 Jan;88(5):463-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.20200082202000823557
  • 13 Averina M, Nilssen O, Breen T, Brox J, Arkhipovsky VL, Kalinin AG. Social and lifestyle determinants of depression, anxiety, sleeping disorders and self- evaluated quality of life in Russia: a population-based study in Arkhangelsk. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2005;40:511-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-005-0918-x
  • 14 Sekine M, Chandola T, Martikainen P, Marmot M, Kagamimori S. Work and family characteristics as determinants of socioeconomic and sex inequalities in sleep: the Japanese civil servants study. Sleep. 2006 Feb;29(2):206-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/29.2.206
  • 15 Tomfohr LM, Ancoli-Israel S, Dimsdale JE. Childhood socioeconomic status and race are associated with adult sleep. Behav Sleep Med. 2010;8(4):219-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2010.509236
  • 16 Marco CA, Wolfson AR, Sparling M, Azuaje A. Family socioeconomic status and sleep patterns of young adolescents. Behav Sleep Med. 2012;10(1):70-80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2012.636298
  • 17 Whinnery J, Jackson N, Rattanaumpawan P, Grandner MA. Short and long sleep duration associated with race/ethnicity, sociodemographics, and socioeconomic position. Sleep. 2014 Mar;37(3):601-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.3508
  • 18 Cunningham TJ, Ford ES, Chapman DP, Liu Y, Croft JB. Independent and joint associations of race/ethnicity and educational attainment with sleep-related symptoms in a population-based US sample. Prev Med. 2015 Aug;77:99-105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.05.008
  • 19 Hoggard LS, Hill LK. Examining how racial discrimination impacts sleep quality in African Americans: is perseveration the answer?. Behav Sleep Med. 2018;16(5):471-81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2016.1228648
  • 20 Matthews KA, Jennings JR, Lee L. Socioeconomic status in childhood predicts sleep continuity in adult black and white men. Sleep Health. 2018 Feb;4(1):49-55. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2017.09.008
  • 21 Vanttola P, Puttonen S, Karhula K, Oksanen T, Härmä M. Prevalence of shift work disorder among hospital personnel: a cross-sectional study using objective working hour data. J Sleep Res. 2019;29(3):e12906. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12906
  • 22 Van Laethem M, Beckers DGJ, Kompier MAJ, Dijksterhuis A, Geurts SAE. Psychosocial work characteristics and sleep quality: a systematic review of longitudinal and intervention research. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2013;39(6):535-49.
  • 23 Manyanga T, Barnes JD, Tremblay MS, Katzmarzyk PT, Broyles ST, Barreira TV, et al. No evidence for an epidemiological transition in sleep patterns among children: a 12-country study. Sleep Health. 2018 Feb;4(1):87-95. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2017.10.010
  • 24 Itani O, Jike M, Watanabe N, Kaneita Y. Short sleep duration and health outcomes: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Sleep Med. 2017 Apr;32:246-56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2016.08.006
  • 25 Jarrin DC, McGrath JJ, Quon EC. Objective and subjective socioeconomic gradients exist for sleep in children and adolescents. Health Psychol. 2014;33(3):301-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032924
  • 26 Ruiter I, Olmedo-Requena R, Sanchez-Cruz JJ, Jimenez-Moleon JJ. Changes in sleep duration in Spanish children aged 2-14 years from 1987 to 2011. Sleep Med. 2016 May;21:145-50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2015.12.021
  • 27 Doane LD, Breitenstein RS, Beekman C, Clifford S, Smith TJ, Lemery-Chalfant K. Early life socioeconomic disparities in children's sleep: the mediating role of the current home environment. J Youth Adolesc. 2018 Aug;48:56-70. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0917-3
  • 28 Counts CJ, Grubin FC, John-Henderson NA. Childhood socioeconomic status and risk in early family environments: predictors of global sleep quality in college students. Sleep Health. 2018 Jun;4(3):301-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2018.02.003
  • 29 Sivertsen B, Boe T, Skogen JC, Petrie KJ, Hysing M. Moving into poverty during childhood is associated with later sleep problems. Sleep Med. 2017 Sep;37:54-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2017.06.005
  • 30 Barazzetta M, Ghislandi S. Family income and material deprivation: do they matter for sleep quality and quantity in early life? Evidence from a longitudinal study. Sleep. 2017;40(3):zsw066. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsw066
  • 31 Shaked D, Williams M, Evans MK, Zonderman AB. Indicators of subjective social status: differential associations across race and sex. SSM Popul Health. 2016 Dec;2:700-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2016.09.009
  • 32 Suarez E, Fang SC, Bliwise D, Yaggi HK, Araujo A. Disentangling racial/ethnic and socioeconomic differences in self-reported sleep measures: the Boston Area Community Health Survey. Sleep Health. 2015 Jun;1(3):90-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2015.02.003
  • 33 Patel SR, Sotres-Alvarez D, Castañeda SF, Dudley KA, Gallo LC, Hernandez R, Medeiros EA, et al. Social and health correlates of sleep duration in a US Hispanic population: results from the Hispanic community health study/study of latinos. Sleep. 2015 Oct;38(10):1515-22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.5036
  • 34 Doane LD, Breitenstein RS, Beekman C, Clifford S, Smith TJ, Lemery- Chalfant K. Early life socioeconomic disparities in children's sleep: the mediating role of the current home environment. J Youth Adolesc. 2018 Aug;48:56-70. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0917-3
  • 35 Tomaso CC, Nelson JM, Espy KA, Nelson TD. Associations between different components of executive control in childhood and sleep problems in early adolescence: a longitudinal study. J Health Psychol. 2018 Sep;25(13-14):2440-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105318801065
  • 36 Schlieber M, Han J. The sleeping patterns of head start children and the influence on developmental outcomes. Child Care Health Dev. 2018;44(3):462-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12522
  • 37 Perlus JG, O'Brien F, Haynie DL, Simons-Morton BG. Adolescent sleep insufficiency one year after high school. J Adolesc. 2018 Oct;68:165-70. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.07.016
  • 38 Maume DJ. Social relationships and the sleep-health nexus in adolescence: evidence from a comprehensive model with bi-directional effects. Sleep Health. 2017 Aug;3(4):284-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2017.05.006
  • 39 Peña MM, Rifas-Shiman SL, Gillman MW, Redline S, Taveras EM. Racial/ethnic and socio-contextual correlates of chronic sleep curtailment in childhood. Sleep. 2016 Sep;39(9):1653-61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.6086
  • 40 Hawkins SS, Takeuchi DT. Social determinants of inadequate sleep in US children and adolescents. Public Health. 2016 Sep;138:119-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2016.03.036
  • 41 Roblyer MIZ, Grzywacz JG. Demographic and parenting correlates of adolescent sleep functioning. J Child Fam Stud. 2015 Jan;24:3331-40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0135-5
  • 42 Buxton OM, Chang AM, Spilsbury JC, Bos BMT, Emsellem H, Knutson KL. Sleep in the modern family: protective family routines for child and adolescent sleep. Sleep Health. 2015 Mar;1(1):15-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.002
  • 43 Bagley EJ, Kelly RJ, Buckhalt JA, El-Sheikh M. What keeps low-SES children from sleeping well: the role of presleep worries and sleep environment. Sleep Med. 2015 Apr;16(4):496-502. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2014.10.008
  • 44 Speirs KE, Liechty JM, Wu CF. Sleep, but not other daily routines, mediates the association between maternal employment and BMI for preschool children. Sleep Med. 2014;15(12):1590-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2014.08.006
  • 45 El-Sheikh M, Bagley EJ, Keiley M, Elmore-Staton L, Chen E, Buckhalt JA. Economic adversity and children's sleep problems: multiple indicators and moderation of effects. Health Psychol. 2013;32(8):849-59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030413
  • 46 Rosenbaum J. Degrees of health disparities: health status disparities between young adults with high school diplomas, sub-baccalaureate degrees, and baccalaureate degrees. Health Serv Outcomes Res Methodol. 2012;12:156-68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10742-012-0094-x
  • 47 Laganiere C, Gaudreau H, Pokhvisneva I, Atkinson L, Meaney M, Pennestri MH. Maternal characteristics and behavioural/emotional problems in preschoolers: how they relate to sleep rhythmic movements at sleep onset. J Sleep Res. 2019;28(3):e12707. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12707
  • 48 Patte KA, Qian W, Leatherdale ST. Sleep duration trends and trajectories among youth in the COMPASS study. Sleep Health. 2017;3(5):309-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2017.06.006
  • 49 Jarrin DC, McGrath JJ, Silverstein JE, Drake C. Objective and subjective socioeconomic gradients exist for sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, weekend oversleep, and daytime sleepiness in adults. Behav Sleep Med. 2013;11(2):144-58. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2011.636112
  • 50 Chervin RD, Clarke DF, Huffman JL, Szymanski E, Ruzicka DL, Miller V, et al. School performance, race, and other correlates of sleep-disordered breathing in children. Sleep Med. 2003 Jan;4(1):21-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/s1389-9457(02)00243-5
  • 51 Roberts RE, Lee ES, Hemandez M, Solari AC. Symptoms of insomnia among adolescents in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Sleep. 2004;27(4):751-60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/27.4.751
  • 52 Acebo C, Sadeh A, Seifer R, Tzischinsky O, Hafer A, Carskadon MA. Sleep/wake patterns derived from activity monitoring and maternal report for healthy 1- to 5-year-old children. Sleep. 2005 Dec;28(12):1568-77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/28.12.1568
  • 53 Crabtree VM, Korkonen JB, Montgomery-Downs HE, Jones VF, O'Brien LM, Gozal D. Cultural influences on the bedtime behaviors of young children. Sleep Med. 2005 Jul;6(4):319-24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2005.02.001
  • 54 Adam EK, Snell EK, Pendry P. Sleep timing and quantity in ecological and family context: a nationally representative time-diary study. J Fam Psychol. 2007;21(1):4-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.21.1.4
  • 55 Meltzer LJ, Johnson C, Crosette J, Ramos M, Mindell JA. Prevalence of diagnosed sleep disorders in pediatric primary care practices. Pediatrics. 2010 Jun;125(6):e1410-e8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-2725
  • 56 McHale SM, Kim JY, Kan M, Updegraff KA. Sleep in Mexican-American adolescents: social ecological and well-being correlates. J Youth Adolesc. 2011;40:666-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9574-x
  • 57 Moore M, Kirchner HL, Drotar D, Johnson N, Rosen C, Redline S. Correlates of adolescent sleep time and variability in sleep time: the role of individual and health related characteristics. Sleep Med. 2011;12(3):239-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2010.07.020
  • 58 Roberts RE, Roberts CR, Chan W. Persistence and change in symptoms of insomnia among adolescents. Sleep. 2008;31(2):177-84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/31.2.177
  • 59 Goyal A, Pakhare AP, Bhatt GC, Choudhary B, Patil R. Association of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea with poor academic performance: a school-based study from India. Lung India. 2018 Mar/Apr;35(2):132-6.
  • 60 McDowall PS, Elder DE, Campbell AJ. Relationship between parent knowledge of child sleep, and child sleep practices and problems: a pilot study in a children's hospital cohort. J Paediatr Child Health. 2017 APr;53(8):788-93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.13542
  • 61 Sosso FAE, Raouafi S. Brain disorders: correlation between cognitive impairment and complex combination. Ment Health Fam Med. 2016;12:215-22.
  • 62 Etindele-Sosso FA. Insomnia, excessive daytime sleepiness, anxiety, depression and socioeconomic status among customer service employees in Canada. Sleep Sci. 2020 Jan/Mar;13(1):54-64.
  • 63 Papadopoulos D, Sosso FAE, Khoury T, Surani SR. Sleep disturbances are mediators between socioeconomic status and health: a scoping review. Int J Ment Health Addict. 2020 Aug 17; [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00378-x
  • 64 Lima TR, Silva DAS. Association of sleep quality with sociodemographic factors and lifestyle in adolescents from southern Brazil. World J Pediatr. 2018 Mar;14:383-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12519-018-0136-8
  • 65 Netsi E, Santos IS, Stein A, Barros FC, Barros AJD, Matijasevich A. A different rhythm of life: sleep patterns in the first 4 years of life and associated sociodemographic characteristics in a large Brazilian birth cohort. Sleep Med. 2017;37:77-87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2017.06.001
  • 66 Mota-Veloso I, Celeste RK, Fonseca CP, Soares MEC, Marques LS, Ramos-Jorge ML, et al. Effects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder signs and socio-economic status on sleep bruxism and tooth wear among schoolchildren: structural equation modelling approach. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2017;27(6):523-31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ipd.12291
  • 67 Fulgencio LB, Corrêa-Faria P, Lage CF, Paiva SM, Pordeus IA, Serra-Negra JM. Diagnosis of sleep bruxism can assist in the detection of cases of verbal school bullying and measure the life satisfaction of adolescents. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2017;27(4):293-301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ipd.12264
  • 68 Schafer AA, Domingues MR, Dahly DL, Meller FO, Gonçalves H, Wehrmeister FC, et al. Correlates of self-reported weekday sleep duration in adolescents: the 18-year follow-up of the 1993 Pelotas (Brazil) Birth Cohort Study. Sleep Med. 2016 Jul;23:81-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2016.02.013
  • 69 Hoefelmann LP, Ada SL, Silva KS, Moritz P, Nahas MV. Sociodemographic factors associated with sleep quality and sleep duration in adolescents from Santa Catarina, Brazil: what changed between 2001 and 2011?. Sleep Med. 2013;14(10):1017-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2013.05.015
  • 70 Plancoulaine S, Reynaud E, Forhan A, Lioret S, Heude B, Charles MA. Night sleep duration trajectories and associated factors among preschool children from the EDEN cohort. Sleep Med. 2018 Aug;48:194-201. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2018.03.030
  • 71 Rona RJ, Li L, Gulliford MC, Chinn S. Disturbed sleep: effects of sociocultural factors and illness. Arch Dis Child. 1998 Jan;78:20-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.78.1.20
  • 72 Rona RJ, Li L, Chinn S. Determinants of nocturnal enuresis in England and Scotland in the '90s. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1997;39(10):677-81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1997.tb07362.x
  • 73 Vermeiren AP, Willeboordse M, Ossterhoff M, Bartelink N, Muris P, Bosma H. Socioeconomic multi-domain health inequalities in Dutch primary school children. Eur J Public Health. 2018 Aug;28(4):610-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cky055
  • 74 Brambilla P, Giussani M, Pasinato A, Venturelli L, Privitera F, Del Giudice EM, et al. Sleep habits and pattern in 1-14 years old children and relationship with video devices use and evening and night child activities. Ital J Pediatr. 2017 Jan;43:7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-016-0324-x
  • 75 Sivertsen B, Harvey AG, Pallesen S, Hysing M. Mental health problems in adolescents with delayed sleep phase: results from a large population-based study in Norway. J Sleep Res. 2015;24(1):11-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12254
  • 76 Brug J, Van Stralen MM, Velde SJ, Chinapaw MJM, Bourdeaudhuij I, Lien N, et al. Differences in weight status and energy-balance related behaviors among schoolchildren across Europe: the ENERGY-project. PloS One. 2012 Apr;7(4):e34742. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0034742
  • 77 Boe T, Hysing M, Stormark KM, Lundervold AJ, Sivertsen B. Sleep problems as a mediator of the association between parental education levels, perceived family economy and poor mental health in children. J Psychosomatic Res. 2012;73(6):430-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2012.09.008
  • 78 Pallesen S, Saxvig IW, Molde H, Sorensen E, Wilhelmsen-Langeland A, Bjorvatn B. Brief report: behaviorally induced insufficient sleep syndrome in older adolescents: prevalence and correlates. J Adolesc. 2011 Apr;34(2):391-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.02.005
  • 79 Hense S, Barba G, Pohlabeln H, Henauw S, Marild S, Molnar D, et al. Factors that influence weekday sleep duration in European children. Sleep. 2011 May;34(5):633-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/34.5.633
  • 80 Bonuck KA, Chervin RD, Cole TJ, Emond A, Henderson J, Xu L, et al. Prevalence and persistence of sleep disordered breathing symptoms in young children: a 6-year population-based cohort study. Sleep. 2011 Jul;34(7):875-84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.1118
  • 81 Kuehni CE, Strippoli MP, Chauliac ES, Silverman M. Snoring in preschool children: prevalence, severity and risk factors. Eur Resp J. 2008;31:326-33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00088407
  • 82 Sadeh A, Raviv A, Gruber R. Sleep patterns and sleep disruptions in school-age children. Dev Psychol. 2000;36(3):291-301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.36.3.291
  • 83 BaHammam A, Bin Saeed A, Al-Faris E, Shaikh S. Sleep duration and its correlates in a sample of Saudi elementary school children. Singapore Med J. 2006 Oct;47(10):875-81.
  • 84 Ozden C, Ozdal OL, Altinova S, Oguzulgen I, Urgancioglu G, Memis A. Prevalence and associated factors of enuresis in Turkish children. Int Braz J Urol. 2007 Apr;33(2):216-22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/s1677-55382007000200013
  • 85 Inan M, Tokuc B, Aydiner CY, Aksu B, Oner N, Basaran UN. Personal characteristics of enuretic children: an epidemiological study from South-East Europe. Urol Int. 2008;81:47-53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000137640
  • 86 Yang QZ, Bu YQ, Dong SY, Fan SS, Wang LX. A comparison of sleeping problems in school- age children between rural and urban communities in China. J Paediatr Child Health. 2009 Jul;45(7-8):414-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1754.2009.01530.x
  • 87 Jiang F, Zhu S, Yan C, Jin X, Bandla H, Shen X. Sleep and obesity in preschool children. J Pediatr. 2009;154(6):814-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.12.043
  • 88 Heshmat R, Qorbani M, Ghoreshi B, Djalalinia S, Tabatabaie OR, Safiri S, et al. Association of socioeconomic status with psychiatric problems and violent behaviours in a nationally representative sample of Iranian children and adolescents: the CASPIAN-IV study. BMJ Open. 2016;6:e011615, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011615
  • 89 Chen DR, Truong KD, Tsai MJ. Prevalence of poor sleep quality and its relationship with body mass index among teenagers: evidence from Taiwan. J Sch Health. 2013 Jul;83(8):582-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12068
  • 90 Guo X, Zhang Z, Li Y, Zhou X, Yang H, Ma H, et al. Differences in healthy lifestyles between prehypertensive and normotensive children and adolescents in Northern China. Pediatr Cardiol. 2012;33:222-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00246-011-0112-8
  • 91 Zhang J, Lam SP, Li SX, Li AM, Lai KYC, Wing YK. Longitudinal course and outcome of chronic insomnia in Hong Kong Chinese children: a 5-year follow-up study of a community-based cohort. Sleep. 2011 Oct;34(10):1395-402. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.1286
  • 92 Li SX, Yu MWM, Lam SP, Zhang J, Li AM, Lai KYC, Wing YK. Frequent nightmares in children: familial aggregation and associations with parent- reported behavioral and mood problems. Sleep. 2011;34(4):487-93.
  • 93 Li S, Jin X, Yan C, Wu S, Jiang F, Shen X. Habitual snoring in school-aged children: environmental and biological predictors. Respir Res. 2010;11:144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1465-9921-11-144
  • 94 Lin LN, Chang LY, Hurng BS, Wu CC, Yen LL, Chang HY. Sex differences in sleep patterns and changes in 7th to 12th graders: a longitudinal follow-up study in Taiwan. Sleep. 2018 Mar;41(3):zsx211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsx211
  • 95 Yu XT, Sadeh A, Lam HS, Mindell JA, Li AM. Parental behaviors and sleep/wake patterns of infants and toddlers in Hong Kong, China. World J Pediatr. 2017 Mar;13:496-502. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12519-017-0025-6
  • 96 Ma Y, Peng L, Kou C, Hua S, Yuan H. Associations of overweight, obesity and related factors with sleep-related breathing disorders and snoring in adolescents: a cross-sectional survey. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017;14(2):194. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14020194
  • 97 Yang T, Peng S, Barnett R, Zhang C. Regional contextual influences on short sleep duration: a 50 universities population-based multilevel study in China. Glob Health Action. 2018;11(1):e1442684. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2018.1442684
  • 98 Arman AR, Ay P, Fis NP, Ersu R, Topuzoglu A, Isik U, et al. Association of sleep duration with socio-economic status and behavioural problems among schoolchildren. Acta Paediatr. 2011;100(3):420-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.02023.x
  • 99 Seo WH, Kwon JH, Eun SH, Kim G, Han K, Choi BM. Effect of socio-economic status on sleep. J Paediatr Child Health. 2017;53(6):592-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.13485
  • 100 Bapat R, Van Geel M, Vedder P. Socio-economic status, time spending, and sleep duration in indian children and adolescents. J Child Fam Stud. 2017;26:80-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0557-8
  • 101 Nasim M, Saade M, AlBuhairan F. Sleep deprivation: prevalence and associated factors among adolescents in Saudi Arabia. Sleep Med. 2019 Jan;53:165-71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2018.08.031
  • 102 Biggs SN, Lushington K, Martin AJ, Van Den Heuvel C, Kennedy JD. Gender, socioeconomic, and ethnic differences in sleep patterns in school-aged children. Sleep Med. 2013 Dec;14(12):1304-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2013.06.014
  • 103 Hardy LL, Mihrshahi S, Bellew W, Bauman A, Ding D. Children's adherence to health behavior recommendations associated with reducing risk of non-communicable disease. Prev Med Rep. 2017 Dec;8:279-85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2017.10.006
  • 104 Nicholson JM, Lucas N, Berthelsen D, Wake M. Socioeconomic inequality profiles in physical and developmental health from 0-7 years: Australian National Study. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2012;66:81-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2009.103291
  • 105 Olorunmoteni OE, Fatusi AO, Komolafe MA, Omisore A. Sleep pattern, socioenvironmental factors, and use of electronic devices among Nigerian school-attending adolescents. Sleep Health. 2018 Dec;4(6):551-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2018.09.002
  • 106 Businelle MS, Mills BA, Chartier KG, Kendzor DE, Reingle JM, Shuval K. Do stressful events account for the link between socioeconomic status and mental health?. J Public Health. 2013 Jun;36(2):205-12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdt060
  • 107 Avidan AY. Introduction to sleep medicine - Review of Sleep Medicine E-Book. 4th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2017.
  • 108 American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Washigton, DC: APA; 2013.
  • 109 Munung NS, Mayosi BM, Vries J. Equity in international health research collaborations in Africa: Perceptions and expectations of African researchers. PloS One. 2017;12(10):e0186237. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186237
  • 110 Defo BK. Demographic, epidemiological, and health transitions: are they relevant to population health patterns in Africa?. Global Health Act. 2014;7(1):22443. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v7.22443
  • 111 Grandner MA, Jackson NJ, Izci-Balserak B, Gallagher RA, Murray-Bachmann R, Williams NJ, et al. Social and behavioral determinants of perceived insufficient sleep. Front Neurol. 2015 Jun;6:112. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2015.00112
  • 112 Davies SK, Ang JE, Revell VL, Holmes B, Mann A, Robertson FP, et al. Effect of sleep deprivation on the human metabolome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2014 Jul;111(29):10761-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1402663111
  • 113 Chen X, Redline S, Shields AE, Williams DR, Williams MA. Associations of allostatic load with sleep apnea, insomnia, short sleep duration, and other sleep disturbances: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005 to 2008. Ann Epidemiol. 2014 Aug;24(8):612-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2014.05.014
  • 114 Waters F, Bucks RS. Neuropsychological effects of sleep loss: implication for neuropsychologists. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2011 May;17(4):571-86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617711000610
  • 115 López-Casasnovas G, Soley-Bori M. The socioeconomic determinants of health: economic growth and health in the OECD countries during the last three decades. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11(1):815-29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110100815
  • 116 Kim KT. Revisiting the income inequality hypothesis with 292 OECD regional units. Int J Health Serv. 2019 Jan;49(2):360-70. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0020731418814105
  • 117 Gravelle H, Sutton M. Income, relative income, and self-reported health in Britain 1979-2000. Health Econ. 2008 Apr;18(2):125-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1354
  • 118 Lewis VA, Maddox KJ, Austin AM, Gottlieb DJ, Bynum JPW. Developing and validating a measure to estimate poverty in medicare administrative data. Med Care. 2019;57(8):601-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/mlr.20200082202000821154
  • 119 Townsend R. Financial structure and economic welfare: applied general equilibrium development economics. Annu Rev Econ. 2010;2:507-46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.economics.102308.124427
  • 120 Chen Q, Eggleston K, Zhang W, Zhao J, Zhou S. The educational gradient in health in China. China Q. 2017 May;230:289-22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741017000613
  • 121 Pfeffer FT. Equality and quality in education. A comparative study of 19 countries. Soc Sci Res. 2015 May;51:350-68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.09.004
  • 122 Hernandez-Villafuerte K, Li R, Hofman KJ. Bibliometric trends of health economic evaluation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Global Health. 2016 Aug;12:50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-016-0188-2