Rolle systemischer Infektionen bei Nierenerkrankungen des Hundes

Christine Preyß-Jägeler; Katrin Hartmann; Roswitha Dorsch

doi:10.1055/a-1811-6186

Tierärztliche Praxis Ausgabe K: Kleintiere / Heimtiere, Inhaltsverzeichnis

Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere 2022; 50(02): 124-136
DOI: 10.1055/a-1811-6186

Übersichtsartikel

Rolle systemischer Infektionen bei Nierenerkrankungen des Hundes

Role of systemic infections in canine kidney diseases

Christine Preyß-Jägeler

Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Zentrum für klinische Tiermedizin, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München

,

Katrin Hartmann

Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Zentrum für klinische Tiermedizin, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München

,

Roswitha Dorsch

Medizinische Kleintierklinik, Zentrum für klinische Tiermedizin, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München

› Institutsangaben

Abstract

Zusammenfassung

Nierenerkrankungen sind häufige Erkrankungen und Todesursachen beim Hund. Insbesondere für Glomerulopathien und akute Nierenschädigungen können Infektionserreger ursächlich verantwortlich sein. Zu den Infektionen, die in Mittel- und Südeuropa häufig mit der Entstehung von Immunkomplex-Glomerulonephritiden assoziiert und in Deutschland als Reisekrankheiten von Bedeutung sind, gehören Leishmaniose, Dirofilariose und Ehrlichiose. Selten verursachen in Deutschland Anaplasmose, Hepatozoonose, Borreliose und eine durch kleine Babesien versursachte Babesiose Immunkomplex-Glomerulonephritiden. Leptospirose, canine infektiöse Hepatitis und eine durch große Babesien verursachte Babesiose können für akute Nierenschädigungen durch tubulointerstitielle Nephritiden verantwortlich sein. Eine weiterführende Diagnostik zur Identifikation potenziell auslösender Infektionen bei Nierenerkrankungen des Hundes ist daher wichtig für die Prognose und Therapie der Patienten.

Abstract

Kidney diseases represent a common problem as well as a frequent cause of death in dogs. Infectious agents may be responsible for glomerulopathies and acute kidney injuries. Many infections commonly associated with the development of immune complex glomerulonephritis in central and southern Europe are important as travel-associated diseases in Germany. These include leishmaniosis, dirofilariosis, and ehrlichiosis. Rarely, anaplasmosis, hepatozoonosis, Lyme disease as well as babesiosis caused by small Babesia spp. are detected as cause of canine immune complex glomerulonephritis in Germany. Leptospirosis, canine infectious hepatitis, and babesiosis caused by large Babesia spp. may be responsible for the development of acute kidney injuries associated with tubulointerstitial nephritis. Therefore, further diagnostics aiming at identifying potentially causative infectious agents in dogs with renal disease is important for both prognosis and therapy of the patient.

Schlüsselwörter

Niere - Urin - Harn - canine - Glomerulonephritis - CNE - ANS

Key words

Renal - urine - dog - glomerulonephritis - CKD - AKI

Volltext

Referenzen

Literatur
1 Bartlett PC, Van Buren JW, Neterer M. et al. Disease surveillance and referral bias in the veterinary medical database. Prev Vet Med 2010; 94: 264-271
2 Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum JA. et al. Acute renal failure – definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: the Second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit Care 2004; 8: R204-212
3 Langston C. Acute kidney injury. In Textbook of veterinary medicine: diseases of the dog and cat. 8th edition. Aufl. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co.; 2017: 1919-1935
4 Keir I, Kellum JA. Acute kidney injury in severe sepsis: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment recommendations. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2015; 25: 200-209
5 Gasser B, Uscategui RAR, Maronezi MC. et al. Clinical and ultrasound variables for early diagnosis of septic acute kidney injury in bitches with pyometra. Sci Rep 2020; 10: 8994
6 Ross L. Acute kidney injury in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2011; 41: 1-14
7 International Renal Interest Society (IRIS). IRIS grading of ACI. Im Internet: Zugriff am 29. März 2022 unter: http://www.iris-kidney.com/pdf/4_ldc-revised-grading-of-acute-kidney-injury.pdf
8 Segev G, Kass PH, Francey T. et al. A novel clinical scoring system for outcome prediction in dogs with acute kidney injury managed by hemodialysis. J Vet Intern Med 2008; 22: 301-308
9 Vaden SL, Levine J, Breitschwerdt EB. A retrospective case-control of acute renal failure in 99 dogs. J Vet Intern Med 1997; 11: 58-64
10 Polzin D. Chronic kidney diseases. In: Ettinger ECF SJ. Hrsg. Textbook of veterinary internal medicine : diseases of the dog and cat: 8th edition. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co.; 2017: 1938-1959
11 Macdougall DF, Cook T, Steward AP. et al. Canine chronic renal disease: prevalence and types of glomerulonephritis in the dog. Kidney Int 1986; 29: 1144-1151
12 O’Neill DG, Elliott J, Church DB. et al. Chronic kidney disease in dogs in UK veterinary practices: prevalence, risk factors, and survival. J Vet Intern Med 2013; 27: 814-821
13 Bartges JW. Chronic kidney disease in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2012; 42: 669-692 vi.
14 International Renal Interest Society (IRIS). IRIS staging of CKD (modified 2019). Im Internet: Zugriff am 29. März 2022 unter: http://www.iris-kidney.com/pdf/IRIS_Staging_of_CKD_modified_2019.pdf
15 Vaden SL. Glomerular disease. Top Companion Anim Med 2011; 26: 128-134
16 Bartlett PC, Van Buren JW, Bartlett AD. et al. Case-control study of risk factors associated with feline and canine chronic kidney disease. Vet Med Int 2010; 2010
17 Sant’Anna R, Vieira AS, Oliveira J. et al. Asymptomatic leptospiral infection is associated with canine chronic kidney disease. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2019; 62: 64-67
18 Burton W, Drake C, Ogeer J. et al. Association Between Exposure to Ehrlichia spp. and Risk of Developing Chronic Kidney Disease in Dogs. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2020; 56: 159-164
19 Hartmann K, Pennisi MG, Dorsch R. Infectious Agents in Feline Chronic Kidney Disease: What Is the Evidence?. Advances in Small Animal Care 2020; 1: 189-206
20 Klosterman ES, Pressler BM. Nephrotic syndrome in dogs: clinical features and evidence-based treatment considerations. Top Companion Anim Med 2011; 26: 135-142
21 IRIS Canine GN Study Group Diagnosis Subgroup. Littman MP, Daminet S. et al. Consensus recommendations for the diagnostic investigation of dogs with suspected glomerular disease. J Vet Intern Med 2013; 27 (Suppl. 01) S19-26
22 Polzin DJ, Leininger JR, Osborne CA. et al. Development of renal lesions in dogs after 11/12 reduction of renal mass. Influences of dietary protein intake. Lab Invest 1988; 58: 172-183
23 Finco DR, Brown SA, Brown CA. et al. Progression of chronic renal disease in the dog. J Vet Intern Med 1999; 13: 516-528
24 Lees GE, Brown SA, Elliott J. et al. Assessment and management of proteinuria in dogs and cats: 2004 ACVIM Forum Consensus Statement (small animal). J Vet Intern Med 2005; 19: 377-385
25 Schneider SM, Cianciolo RE, Nabity MB. et al. Prevalence of immune-complex glomerulonephritides in dogs biopsied for suspected glomerular disease: 501 cases (2007–2012). J Vet Intern Med 2013; 27 (Suppl. 01) S67-75
26 Cianciolo RE, Brown CA, Mohr FC. et al. Pathologic evaluation of canine renal biopsies: methods for identifying features that differentiate immune-mediated glomerulonephritides from other categories of glomerular diseases. J Vet Intern Med 2013; 27 (Suppl. 01) S10-18
27 Group IGDS, Goldstein RE, Brovida C. et al. Consensus recommendations for treatment for dogs with serology positive glomerular disease. J Vet Intern Med 2013; 27 (Suppl. 01) S60-66
28 Littman MP, Gerber B, Goldstein RE. et al. ACVIM consensus update on Lyme borreliosis in dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 2018; 32: 887-903
29 Kordick SK, Breitschwerdt EB, Hegarty BC. et al. Coinfection with multiple tick-borne pathogens in a Walker Hound kennel in North Carolina. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 2631-2638
30 Neer TM, Breitschwerdt EB, Greene RT. et al. Consensus statement on ehrlichial disease of small animals from the infectious disease study group of the ACVIM. American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine. J Vet Intern Med 2002; 16: 309-315
31 DiBartola SP, Tarr MJ, Parker AT. et al. Clinicopathologic findings in dogs with renal amyloidosis: 59 cases (1976–1986). J Am Vet Med Assoc 1989; 195: 358-364
32 Dantas-Torres F. The role of dogs as reservoirs of Leishmania parasites, with emphasis on Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum and Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. Vet Parasitol 2007; 149: 139-146
33 Volf P, Hostomska J, Rohousova I. Molecular crosstalks in Leishmania-sandfly-host relationships. Parasite 2008; 15: 237-243
34 Mettler M, Grimm F, Naucke TJ. et al. Kanine Leishmaniose in Miktteleuropa: retrospektive Umfrage und serologische Untersuchung importierter und reisebegleitender Hunde. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr 2005; 118: 37-44
35 Shaw SE, Langton DA, Hillman TJ. Canine leishmaniosis in the United Kingdom: a zoonotic disease waiting for a vector?. Vet Parasitol 2009; 163: 281-285
36 Baneth G, Koutinas AF, Solano-Gallego L. et al. Canine leishmaniosis – new concepts and insights on an expanding zoonosis: part one. Trends Parasitol 2008; 24: 324-330
37 Naucke TJ, Schmitt C. Is leishmaniasis becoming endemic in Germany?. Int J Med Microbiol 2004; 293 (Suppl. 37) 179-181
38 Solano-Gallego L, Koutinas A, Miro G. et al. Directions for the diagnosis, clinical staging, treatment and prevention of canine leishmaniosis. Vet Parasitol 2009; 165: 1-18
39 Paltrinieri S, Solano-Gallego L, Fondati A. et al. Guidelines for diagnosis and clinical classification of leishmaniasis in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2010; 236: 1184-1191
40 Solano-Gallego L, Miro G, Koutinas A. et al. LeishVet guidelines for the practical management of canine leishmaniosis. Parasit Vectors 2011; 4: 86
41 Costa FA, Goto H, Saldanha LC. et al. Histopathologic patterns of nephropathy in naturally acquired canine visceral leishmaniasis. Vet Pathol 2003; 40: 677-684
42 Cortadellas O, Fernandez del Palacio MJ, Talavera J. et al. Glomerular filtration rate in dogs with leishmaniasis and chronic kidney disease. J Vet Intern Med 2008; 22: 293-300
43 Geisweid K, Mueller R, Sauter-Louis C. et al. Prognostic analytes in dogs with Leishmania infantum infection living in a non-endemic area. Vet Rec 2012; 171: 399
44 Lopez R, Lucena R, Novales M. et al. Circulating immune complexes and renal function in canine leishmaniasis. Zentralbl Veterinarmed B 1996; 43: 469-474
45 Koutinas AF, Polizopoulou ZS, Saridomichelakis MN. et al. Clinical considerations on canine visceral leishmaniasis in Greece: a retrospective study of 158 cases (1989–1996). J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 1999; 35: 376-383
46 Baneth G, Segev G, Mazaki-Tovi M. et al. Renal dialysis and long-term treatment of a dog with kidney disease associated with canine leishmaniosis. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11: 151
47 Zatelli A, Borgarelli M, Santilli R. et al. Glomerular lesions in dogs infected with Leishmania organisms. Am J Vet Res 2003; 64: 558-561
48 Poli A, Abramo F, Mancianti F. et al. Renal involvement in canine leishmaniasis. A light-microscopic, immunohistochemical and electron-microscopic study. Nephron 1991; 57: 444-452
49 Costa FA, Prianti MG, Silva TC. et al. T cells, adhesion molecules and modulation of apoptosis in visceral leishmaniasis glomerulonephritis. BMC Infect Dis 2010; 10: 112
50 Ginel PJ, Camacho S, Lucena R. Anti-histone antibodies in dogs with leishmaniasis and glomerulonephritis. Res Vet Sci 2008; 85: 510-514
51 McCall JW, Genchi C, Kramer LH. et al. Heartworm disease in animals and humans. Adv Parasitol 2008; 66: 193-285
52 Simon F, Siles-Lucas M, Morchon R. et al. Human and animal dirofilariasis: the emergence of a zoonotic mosaic. Clin Microbiol Rev 2012; 25: 507-544
53 Genchi C, Kramer LH. The prevalence of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in the Old World. Vet Parasitol 2020; 280: 108995
54 McHaffie J. Dirofilaria immitis and Wolbachia pipientis: a thorough investigation of the symbiosis responsible for canine heartworm disease. Parasitol Res 2012; 110: 499-502
55 Morchon R, Carreton E, Grandi G. et al. Anti-Wolbachia Surface Protein antibodies are present in the urine of dogs naturally infected with Dirofilaria immitis with circulating microfilariae but not in dogs with occult infections. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12: 17-20
56 Carreton E, Falcon-Cordon Y, Rodon J. et al. Evaluation of serum biomarkers and proteinuria for the early detection of renal damage in dogs with heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis). Vet Parasitol 2020; 283: 109144
57 Abramowsky CR, Powers KG, Aikawa M. et al. Dirofilaria immitis. 5. Immunopathology of filarial nephropathy in dogs. Am J Pathol 1981; 104: 1-12
58 Paes-de-Almeida EC, Ferreira AM, Labarthe NV. et al. Kidney ultrastructural lesions in dogs experimentally infected with Dirofilaria immitis (Leidy, 1856). Vet Parasitol 2003; 113: 157-168
59 Nakagaki K, Hayasaki M, Ohishi I. Histopathological and immunopathological evaluation of filarial glomerulonephritis in Dirofilaria immitis infected dogs. Jpn J Exp Med 1990; 60: 179-186
60 Bazzocchi C, Genchi C, Paltrinieri S. et al. Immunological role of the endosymbionts of Dirofilaria immitis: the Wolbachia surface protein activates canine neutrophils with production of IL-8. Vet Parasitol 2003; 117: 73-83
61 Harrus S, Waner T. Diagnosis of canine monocytotropic ehrlichiosis (Ehrlichia canis): an overview. Vet J 2011; 187: 292-296
62 Cohn LA. Ehrlichiosis and related infections. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2003; 33: 863-884
63 Frank JR, Breitschwerdt EB. A retrospective study of ehrlichiosis in 62 dogs from North Carolina and Virginia. J Vet Intern Med 1999; 13: 194-201
64 Codner EC, Maslin WR. Investigation of renal protein loss in dogs with acute experimentally induced Ehrlichia canis infection. Am J Vet Res 1992; 53: 294-299
65 Silva LS, Prianti MG, Pinho FA. et al. Renal histopathological changes in dogs naturally infected with Ehrlichia canis. Braz J Vet Pathol 2016; 9 (01) -2 15
66 de Castro MB, Machado RZ, de Aquino LP. et al. Experimental acute canine monocytic ehrlichiosis: clinicopathological and immunopathological findings. Vet Parasitol 2004; 119: 73-86
67 Hildebrandt PK, Huxsoll DL, Walker JS. et al. Pathology of canine ehrlichiosis (tropical canine pancytopenia). Am J Vet Res 1973; 34: 1309-1320
68 Reardon MJ, Pierce KR. Acute experimental canine ehrlichiosis. I. Sequential reaction of the hemic and lymphoreticular systems. Vet Pathol 1981; 18: 48-61
69 Luckschander N, Kleiter M, Willmann M. Durch Ehrlichia canis verursachte Nierenamyloidose. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd 2003; 145: 482-485
70 Codner EC, Caceci T, Saunders GK. et al. Investigation of glomerular lesions in dogs with acute experimentally induced Ehrlichia canis infection. Am J Vet Res 1992; 53: 2286-2291
71 Modi KS, Dahl DC, Berkseth RO. et al. Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis presenting with acute renal failure and mimicking thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. A case report and review. Am J Nephrol 1999; 19: 677-681
72 Patel RG, Byrd MA. Near fatal acute respiratory distress syndrome in a patient with human ehrlichiosis. South Med J 1999; 92: 333-335
73 Madewell BR, Gribble DH. Infection in two dogs with an agent resembling Ehrlichia equi. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1982; 180: 512-514
74 Chen SM, Dumler JS, Bakken JS. et al. Identification of a granulocytotropic Ehrlichia species as the etiologic agent of human disease. Journal of clinical microbiology 1994; 32: 589-595
75 Carrade DD, Foley JE, Borjesson DL. et al. Canine granulocytic anaplasmosis: a review. J Vet Intern Med 2009; 23: 1129-1141
76 Allison RW, Little SE. Diagnosis of rickettsial diseases in dogs and cats. Vet Clin Pathol 2013; 42: 127-144
77 Littman MP. Protein-losing nephropathy in small animals. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2011; 41: 31-62
78 Dahlgren FS, Mandel EJ, Krebs JW. et al. Increasing incidence of Ehrlichia chaffeensis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in the United States, 2000–2007. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2011; 85: 124-131
79 Granick JL, Armstrong PJ, Bender JB. Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in dogs: 34 cases (2000–2007). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2009; 234: 1559-1565
80 Kohn B, Galke D, Beelitz P. et al. Clinical features of canine granulocytic anaplasmosis in 18 naturally infected dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2008; 22: 1289-1295
81 Mazepa AW, Kidd LB, Young KM. et al. Clinical presentation of 26 anaplasma phagocytophilum-seropositive dogs residing in an endemic area. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2010; 46: 405-412
82 Ravnik U, Tozon N, Smrdel KS. et al. Anaplasmosis in dogs: the relation of haematological, biochemical and clinical alterations to antibody titre and PCR confirmed infection. Vet Microbiol 2011; 149: 172-176
83 Ravnik U, Bajuk BP, Lusa L. et al. Serum protein profiles, circulating immune complexes and proteinuria in dogs naturally infected with Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Vet Microbiol 2014; 173: 160-165
84 Khatat SE, Defauw P, Marynissen S. et al. Exposure to Anaplasma phagocytophilum in two dogs in Belgium. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 2015; 84: 39-46
85 Egenvall A, Bjoersdorff A, Lilliehook I. et al. Early manifestations of granulocytic ehrlichiosis in dogs inoculated experimentally with a Swedish Ehrlichia species isolate. Vet Rec 1998; 143: 412-417
86 Nair AD, Cheng C, Ganta CK. et al. Comparative Experimental Infection Study in Dogs with Ehrlichia canis, E. chaffeensis, Anaplasma platys and A. phagocytophilum. PLoS One 2016; 11: e0148239
87 Drake C, Coyne M, McCrann DJ. et al. Risk of Development of Chronic Kidney Disease After Exposure to Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma spp. Top Companion Anim Med 2021; 42: 100491
88 Menn B, Lorentz S, Naucke TJ. Imported and travelling dogs as carriers of canine vector-borne pathogens in Germany. Parasit Vectors 2010; 3: 34
89 Baneth G, Harmelin A, Presentey BZ. Hepatozoon canis infection in two dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1995; 206: 1891-1894
90 Mylonakis ME, Koutinas AF, Baneth G. et al. Mixed Ehrlichia canis, Hepatozoon canis, and presumptive Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in a dog. Vet Clin Pathol 2004; 33: 249-251
91 Morgado FN, Cavalcanti AD, Miranda LH. et al. Hepatozoon canis and Leishmania spp. coinfection in dogs diagnosed with visceral leishmaniasis. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet 2016; 25: 450-458
92 Baneth G, Weigler B. Retrospective case-control study of hepatozoonosis in dogs in Israel. J Vet Intern Med 1997; 11: 365-370
93 Kontos V, Koutinas A. Canine hepatozoonosis: A review of 11 naturally occurring cases. Bull Hell Vet Med Soc 1990; 41: 73-81
94 Frank C, Faber M, Hellenbrand W. et al. Wichtige, durch Vektoren übertragene Infektionskrankheiten beim Menschen in Deutschland. In: Robert Koch-Institut, Infektionsepidemiologie. 2014
95 O’Connell S, Granstrom M, Gray JS. et al. Epidemiology of European Lyme borreliosis. Zentralbl Bakteriol 1998; 287: 229-240
96 Roberts DM, Carlyon JA, Theisen M. et al. The bdr gene families of the Lyme disease and relapsing fever spirochetes: potential influence on biology, pathogenesis, and evolution. Emerg Infect Dis 2000; 6: 110-122
97 Margos G, Vollmer SA, Ogden NH. et al. Population genetics, taxonomy, phylogeny and evolution of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Infect Genet Evol 2011; 11: 1545-1563
98 Boerlin P, Peter O, Bretz AG. et al. Population genetic analysis of Borrelia burgdorferi isolates by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis. Infection and immunity 1992; 60: 1677-1683
99 Krupka I, Pantchev N, Lorentzen L. et al. Durch Zecken übertragbare bakterielle Infektionen bei Hunden: Seroprävalenzen von Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato und Ehrlichia canis in Deutschland. Prakt Tierarzt 2007; 88: 776-788
100 Hutton TA, Goldstein RE, Njaa BL. et al. Search for Borrelia burgdorferi in kidneys of dogs with suspected “Lyme nephritis”. J Vet Intern Med 2008; 22: 860-865
101 Chou J, Wunschmann A, Hodzic E. et al. Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in tissues from dogs with presumptive Lyme borreliosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006; 229: 1260-1265
102 Magnarelli LA, Anderson JF, Schreier AB. et al. Clinical and serologic studies of canine borreliosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1987; 191: 1089-1094
103 Grauer GF, Burgess EC, Cooley AJ. et al. Renal lesions associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection in a dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1988; 193: 237-239
104 Preiss H. Zur Glomerulonephritis beim Berner Sennenhund. In. Inaugural-Dissertation ed.. Zürich: 1991
105 Minkus G, Breuer W, Wanke R. et al. Familial nephropathy in Bernese mountain dogs. Vet Pathol 1994; 31: 421-428
106 Reusch C, Hoerauf A, Lechner J. et al. A new familial glomerulonephropathy in Bernese mountain dogs. Vet Rec 1994; 134: 411-415
107 Preyss-Jageler C, Hartmann K, Dorsch R. Changes in renal parameters and their association with subclinical vector-borne infections in Bernese Mountain dogs. BMC Vet Res 2020; 16: 285
108 Homer MJ, Aguilar-Delfin I, Telford 3 rd SR. et al. Babesiosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000; 13: 451-469
109 Daugschies A. Importation of parasites by tourism and animal trading. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr 2001; 108: 348-352
110 Solano-Gallego L, Sainz A, Roura X. et al. A review of canine babesiosis: the European perspective. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9: 336
111 Mathe A, Dobos-Kovacs M, Voros K. Histological and ultrastructural studies of renal lesions in Babesia canis infected dogs treated with imidocarb. Acta Vet Hung 2007; 55: 511-523
112 Maegraith B, Gilles HM, Devakul K. Pathological processes in Babesia canis infections. Z Tropenmed Parasitol 1957; 8: 485-514
113 Zygner W, Gojska-Zygner O, Baska P. et al. Increased concentration of serum TNF alpha and its correlations with arterial blood pressure and indices of renal damage in dogs infected with Babesia canis. Parasitol Res 2014; 113: 1499-1503
114 Breshears MA, Confer AW. The Urinary System.
115 Lobetti RG, Reyers F. Met-haemoglobinuria in naturally occurring Babesia canis infection. J S Afr Vet Assoc 1996; 67: 88-90
116 Wozniak EJ, Barr BC, Thomford JW. et al. Clinical, anatomic, and immunopathologic characterization of Babesia gibsoni infection in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). J Parasitol 1997; 83: 692-699
117 Slade DJ, Lees GE, Berridge BR. et al. Resolution of a proteinuric nephropathy associated with Babesia gibsoni infection in a dog. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 2011; 47: e138-144
118 Planc R, Dean D. Overview of the epidemiology, microbiology and pathogenesis of Leptospira in humans. Microbes and Infection 2000; 2: 1265-1276
119 Morrison WI, Wright NG. Canine leptospirosis: an immunopathological study of interstitial nephritis due to Leptospira canicola. J Pathol 1976; 120: 83-89
120 Tucunduva de Faria M, Athanazio DA, Goncalves Ramos EA. et al. Morphological alterations in the kidney of rats with natural and experimental Leptospira infection. J Comp Pathol 2007; 137: 231-238
121 Yener Z, Keles H. Immunoperoxidase and histopathological examinations of leptospiral nephritis in cattle. J Vet Med A Physiol Pathol Clin Med 2001; 48: 441-447
122 Bishop L, Strandberg JD, Adams RJ. et al. Chronic active hepatitis in dogs associated with leptospires. Am J Vet Res 1979; 40: 839-844
123 Songer JG, Thiermann AB. Leptospirosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1988; 193: 1250-1254
124 Rentko VT, Clark N, Ross LA. et al. Canine leptospirosis. A retrospective study of 17 cases. J Vet Intern Med 1992; 6: 235-244
125 Mc IW, Montgomery GL. Renal lesions in Leptospira canicola infection in dogs. J Pathol Bacteriol 1952; 64: 145-160
126 Ortega-Pacheco A, Colin-Flores RF, Gutierrez-Blanco E. et al. Frequency and type of renal lesions in dogs naturally infected with leptospira species. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1149: 270-274
127 Dash BR, Dhaygude VS, Gadhave PD. et al. Molecular detection of Leptospira spp. from canine kidney tissues and its association with renal lesions. Vet World 2018; 11: 530-534
128 Cheville NF, Huhn R, Cutlip RC. Ultrastructure of renal lesions in pigs with acute leptospirosis caused by Leptospira pomona. Vet Pathol 1980; 17: 338-351
129 Marshall RB. The route of entry of leptospires into the kidney tubule. J Med Microbiol 1976; 9: 149-152
130 Lee SH, Kim S, Park SC. et al. Cytotoxic activities of Leptospira interrogans hemolysin SphH as a pore-forming protein on mammalian cells. Infection and immunity 2002; 70: 315-322
131 Nascimento AL, Verjovski-Almeida S, Van Sluys MA. et al. Genome features of Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni. Braz J Med Biol Res 2004; 37: 459-477
132 Yang CW, Wu MS, Pan MJ. et al. Leptospira outer membrane protein activates NF-kappaB and downstream genes expressed in medullary thick ascending limb cells. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000; 11: 2017-2026
133 Monahan AM, Callanan JJ, Nally JE. Proteomic analysis of Leptospira interrogans shed in urine of chronically infected hosts. Infect Immun 2008; 76: 4952-4958
134 Ristow P, Bourhy P, Kerneis S. et al. Biofilm formation by saprophytic and pathogenic leptospires. Microbiology (Reading) 2008; 154: 1309-1317
135 Wigand R, Bartha A, Dreizin RS. et al. Adenoviridae: second report. Intervirology 1982; 18: 169-176
136 Morrison MD, Onions DE, Nicolson L. Complete DNA sequence of canine adenovirus type 1. J Gen Virol 1997; 78 (Pt 4): 873-878
137 Schulz BS, Kurz S, Weber K. et al. Detection of respiratory viruses and Bordetella bronchiseptica in dogs with acute respiratory tract infections. Vet J 2014; 201: 365-369
138 Cabasso VJ, Stebbins MR, Norton TW. et al. Propagation of infectious canine hepatitis virus in tissue culture. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1954; 85: 239-245
139 Poppensiek GC, Baker JA. Persistence of virus in urine as factor in spread of infectious hepatitis in dogs. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1951; 77: 279-281
140 Gleich S, Kamenica K, Janik D. et al. Infectious canine hepatitis in central Europe – Canine Adenovirus-(CAV)-I infection in a puppy in Germany. Wiener Tierarztliche Monatsschrift 2009; 96: 227-231
141 Decaro N, Campolo M, Elia G. et al. Infectious canine hepatitis: an “old” disease reemerging in Italy. Res Vet Sci 2007; 83: 269-273
142 Wright NG, Nash AS, Cornwell HJ. Experimental canine adenovirus glomerulonephritis: persistence of glomerular lesions after oral challenge. Br J Exp Pathol 1981; 62: 183-189
143 Wright NG, Cornwell HJ, Thompson H. Canine adenovirus nephritis. J Small Anim Pract 1971; 12: 657-664
144 Morrison WI, Wright NG, Cornwell HJ. An immunopathologic study of interstitial nephritis associated with experimental canine adenovirus infection. J Pathol 1976; 120: 221-228
145 Lees GE. Early diagnosis of renal disease and renal failure. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2004; 34: 867-885 v.
146 Grauer GF. Early detection of renal damage and disease in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2005; 35: 581-596
147 Subgroup ICGSGST, Brown S, Elliott J. et al. Consensus recommendations for standard therapy of glomerular disease in dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2013; 27 (Suppl. 01) S27-43
148 Brown SA, Brown CA, Crowell WA. et al. Effects of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in early renal insufficiency in dogs. J Lab Clin Med 2000; 135: 275-286
149 Brown SA, Brown CA, Crowell WA. et al. Beneficial effects of chronic administration of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in dogs with renal insufficiency. J Lab Clin Med 1998; 131: 447-455
150 Polzin DJ, Osborne CA, Hayden DW. et al. Influence of reduced protein diets on morbidity, mortality, and renal function in dogs with induced chronic renal failure. Am J Vet Res 1984; 45: 506-517
151 Pestka JJ. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and autoimmune-mediated glomerulonephritis. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2010; 82: 251-258
152 Schuller S, Francey T, Hartmann K. et al. European consensus statement on leptospirosis in dogs and cats. J Small Anim Pract 2015; 56: 159-179
153 Klaasen HL, van der Veen M, Molkenboer MJ. et al. A novel tetravalent Leptospira bacterin protects against infection and shedding following challenge in dogs. Vet Rec 2013; 172: 181
154 Francey T, Schweighauser A, Reber A. et al. Evaluation of changes in the epidemiology of leptospirosis in dogs after introduction of a quadrivalent antileptospiral vaccine in a highly endemic area. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 2020; 34: 2405-2417
155 Moafi M, Rezvan H, Sherkat R. et al. Leishmania Vaccines Entered in Clinical Trials: A Review of Literature. Int J Prev Med 2019; 10: 95
156 Schetters T. Vaccination against canine babesiosis. Trends Parasitol 2005; 21: 179-184
157 Fischer J, Pantaleo V, Francey T. et al. Veterinary hemodialysis: Advances in management and technology. The Veterinary clinics of North America Small animal practice 2004; 34: 935-967 vi.
158 Vaden SL. Renal biopsy of dogs and cats. Clin Tech Small Anim Pract 2005; 20: 11-22
159 Jeraj K, Osborne CA, Stevens JB. Evaluation of renal biopsy in 197 dogs and cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1982; 181: 367-369
160 Leveille R, Partington BP, Biller DS. et al. Complications after ultrasound-guided biopsy of abdominal structures in dogs and cats: 246 cases (1984–1991). J Am Vet Med Assoc 1993; 203: 413-415
161 Vaden SL, Levine JF, Lees GE. et al. Renal biopsy: a retrospective study of methods and complications in 283 dogs and 65 cats. J Vet Intern Med 2005; 19: 794-801