Introduction
Palliative care medicine and the role of specialized outpatient care (SAPV)
in Germany
Palliative care indicates a shift from cure and control of the disease to
providing comfort and dignity to patients by improving their quality of life.
Physical symptoms, functional deficits, and feelings of loss of control become
the focus of care [1 ]. According to a recent
study, cancer remains the most prevalent diagnosis among palliative care
patients, followed by heart and lung diseases [2 ].
Between 1980 and 2004, the annual number of new cancer cases in Germany
increased by 90% in men and more than 40% in women [3 ]. Much of this increase was due to the rise in
the population’s proportion of older people. Based on the favorable
results of several studies, the WHO has recommended early involvement of
palliative care in the course of any life-limiting illness [4 ].
In 2001, the European Health Committee decided to address the critical issue of
palliative care at a pan-European level by setting up a committee of experts.
The legal basis of receiving palliative care has previously been outlined [5 ]. Since 2007, there has been a legal entitlement
in Germany to specialized outpatient palliative care (SAPV). SAPV is provided by
multi-professional palliative care teams (PCTs), which include coordinators,
palliative care physicians (PCPs), palliative care nurses (PCNs), social
workers, psycho-oncologists, and chaplains [6 ].
These PCTs ensure high-quality palliative care for patients wishing to spend the
last phase of their lives in their home environment.
In 2015 Hospice and Palliative Care Evaluation (HOPE) data showed that weakness,
lack of appetite, tiredness, and pain were the main reasons for palliative care
patients in Germany receiving SAPV or being admitted to palliative care units
[7 ]. Based on 2020 data, SAPV was prescribed
more than 144,795 times in Germany. Compared to just 43,721 prescriptions in
2011. This represents an increase of 231 percent [8 ]. In a recent study conducted in Germany, problems and symptoms
impairing autonomy and mobility, but not primarily pain or dyspnea, are the main
reasons for admission to inpatient palliative care wards in Germany [9 ].
The use of ultrasound in palliative care
Patients receiving palliative care may have multiple symptoms at the same time
and therefore present with complex clinical pictures. One symptom can have very
different causes requiring very different therapeutic approaches. For example,
shortness of breath may be due to pleural effusions, ascites, heart failure,
bronchopulmonary or neurological causes. Therefore, some studies reported
increased diagnostic exams performed in the last months of a patient’s
life [10 ]
[11 ]. The
most frequently performed imaging procedure was computed tomography (CT) [12 ]. Raghavan et al. recently studied the
association between palliative care (PC) involvement and high-cost imaging such
as CT scans in cancer patients during the last three months of life.
Surprisingly, PC involvement in oncological care at the end of life did not
decrease high-cost imaging [13 ]. CT imaging is
often used to clarify acute symptoms, evaluate disease progression, and decide
whether to continue or change the treatment protocol [11 ]
[12 ], but is associated with high
costs and often causes a significant burden for palliative care patients due to
transportation to the hospital or long waiting times in the emergency
department. Large equipment imaging such as CT and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) are “non-dialogic” procedures [14 ]: Examination procedure, diagnostic assessment by the radiologist,
and discussion of the findings with the patient are separate processes in terms
of time, space, and the persons involved. The radiologist and patient often have
no or only brief direct contact with each other, the information on the
patient's medical history usually comes from a brief referral order, and
the patient usually does not learn the imaging results directly from the
radiologist, but from the referring physician after the latter has received the
examination report [15 ]
[16 ]
[17 ]. This may cause distance
between patients and PCPs and emotional distress, and can ultimately worsen
suffering in PC patients who need attention, reassurance, and sympathy rather
than additional diagnostic information [18 ].
Therefore, information gain and potential therapeutic consequences resulting
from comprehensive imaging in the end-of-life phase should be carefully weighed
against these disadvantages in each case, considering co-morbidity, quality of
life, and individual patient wishes. The balance between, on the one hand,
purely home-based care with the limitation of physical examination possibilities
and, on the other hand, the degree of apparatus-based medicine required for
optimal symptom control (which in turn can give rise to unrealistic hopes of
healing) is a particular challenge for palliative home-based care [19 ].
Compared with CT and MRI, clinical ultrasound is a “dialogic”
imaging modality with direct doctor-patient communication that can be integrated
into the clinical examination and used directly, without temporal or spatial
distance, to solve clinical problems at the bedside [14 ]
[19 ]
[20 ]
[21 ]. It is the first and often the
last diagnostic tool used and accepted by patients and doctors. It also plays a
vital role in the recognition of palliative situations, providing follow-up
care, identifying complications, and safely implementing palliative
interventions ([Table 1 ]) [19 ]
[20 ]. The aim of
this manuscript is to encourage and improve the use of handheld ultrasound
(HHUS) in ambulatory PC and to highlight its benefits, as well as its
limitations and challenges.
Table 1 Contributions of ultrasound in palliative care,
modified from Nuernberg et al. [19 ]
MEDICAL CAREGIVER: During the clinical sonographic
examination, an empathetic examiner can quickly create an
atmosphere of trust: the unique combination of examination,
dialogue, and ultrasound-specific skin contact gives the
patient a feeling of undivided attention.
ONCOLOGY: Ultrasound is an essential diagnostic tool
in detecting palliative situations (part of oncological
staging) and allows follow-up of palliative patients with a
reasonable expenditure with respect to equipment and
time.
MOBILITY: Unlike other imaging methods, ultrasound
with pocket-sized equipment can be used almost anywhere to
clarify symptom causes, especially during in-home
visits.
INTERVENTIONS: Ultrasound with pocket-sized devices
enables needle guidance for palliative interventions.
The potential of handheld ultrasound (HHUS) in ambulatory palliative care
The development of mobile ultrasound systems (small cart-based systems, laptops,
handheld devices) has opened up a variety of new possibilities for the use of
ultrasound at the point of care (point-of-care ultrasound, POCUS) by almost all
medical specialties [22 ]. HHUS devices have made POCUS
almost completely site-independent. In palliative care, they facilitate the
expansion of ultrasound diagnostics beyond ultrasound departments or palliative care
wards to hospices and home care [23 ], thus
contributing to the fulfillment of the patient’s wishes to spend the last
phase of life at home.
The market for HHUS devices is growing dynamically, and a wide variety of
transducers, technologies, and advanced software is now available for different
applications [24 ]. Currently available HHUS systems
have either dual probes (linear and sector; linear and convex), single probes that
are electronically modifiable in their array architecture, or connectivity for a
selection of single probes, including intracavitary and other special transducers.
In some devices, the transducer and screen form a single unit; in others, the
transducer is connected to a tablet or smartphone with a cable or wirelessly. The
weight of the devices varies from 110 grams to 2700 grams and the batteries allow
scanning times from 40 minutes up to 4 hours with charging times
starting from less than 1 hour. Most of the scanners are being used for
abdominal and thoracic scanning. A detailed overview of the HHUS systems currently
on the market was recently published by Dietrich et al. [25 ]. HHUS has already revolutionized everyday clinical practice, although
it may have limited features and possibilities for fine-tuning the image, resulting
in insufficient scans since small lesions can be missed or areas can be overlooked
because of small screen sizes [25 ]
[26 ]. It can be an excellent complement to physical
examination or clinical practice where information on bedside imaging may be needed.
HHUS is not a replacement for high-end ultrasound systems but rather an extension of
physical examination in the daily acute and critical care work [22 ]
[25 ]. Using HHUS as a
diagnostic tool in palliative care patients can provide helpful information on
treatment response [21 ] and expand the diagnostic and
therapeutic spectrum in the case of symptom exacerbation regardless of where it is
performed. Therefore, it allows the visual illustration of findings to support the
joint decision-making of an interdisciplinary team. Some systems already enable a
direct DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine) connection to PACS
(Picture Archiving and Communication System). Almost all manufacturers offer data
storage on the end device and their clouds with high-security standards. Telemedical
applications (teleguidance, remote review) and support through artificial
intelligence are increasingly offered [25 ].
Several authors have demonstrated the successful use of handheld-POCUS (HH-POCUS).
For example, it has been used in hospice and outpatient clinical settings to assess
bladder volume before catheterization and degree of ascites before paracentesis,
thereby saving patients an uncomfortable trip to the hospital or any unnecessary
catheterization [23 ]
[27 ]. In a recently published study [28 ], we
demonstrated the feasibility of using HH-POCUS as a bedside examination tool to
assess some of the most common acute symptoms in palliative patients, such as pain,
dyspnea, and nausea/vomiting during homecare visits by a group of general
practitioners and PCPs. Considering the lack of physicians in rural regions of
Germany predicted for 2030 with distances of more than 30–50 km to
the nearest family practice or hospital, PCNs were included in this study. In the
event of sudden deterioration of a patient’s condition, they are often the
first PCT members involved and could provide clinically relevant information to the
PCP by using HH-POCUS. Despite being an essential part of PCTs, PCNs like other
specialized and well-trained non-physician healthcare professionals are not
regularly authorized to perform ultrasound examinations in Germany. Therefore, for
PCNs, the indications for HH-POCUS were restricted, and a simplified examination
protocol was assigned considering the lack of formal ultrasound training. We were
able to demonstrate that ambulatory use of HHUS made a valuable impact on patient
management and contributed to almost 50% of treatment decisions, including
medication modifications and implementation of therapeutic interventions [28 ]. For PC patients, this could reduce avoidable
emergency department visits or hospital readmissions [29 ]. Therefore, HHUS is an ideal clinical examination procedure with high
diagnostic efficiency and at the point of care with a particularly high potential
for PC ([Table 2 ]). It may also help to solve the
dilemma of “diagnostic aggressiveness” and high costs for imaging
procedures in end-stage cancer patients despite PC involvement [11 ]
[13 ]. In the following
sections, we will detail potential diagnostic and therapeutic applications of HHUS
for common clinical symptoms in outpatient PC.
Table 2 Overview of the potential of handheld ultrasound in
palliative therapy monitoring, modified from Nuernberg et al. [19 ]. *RFA: radiofrequency ablation,
TACE: transarterial chemoembolization therapy, HITT: high frequency
induced thermotherapy, PEI: percutaneous ethanol injection
Type of tumor/ tumor manifestation or therapeutic
intervention
Goal of monitoring
Examples of palliative therapy monitoring (therapy
effectiveness)
Pancreatic cancer
Assessment of local response to palliative chemotherapy
Hepatocellular carcinoma
Assessment of size/vascularity after local therapy (RFA,
HITT, PEI, TACE)*or under chemotherapy
Liver metastasis
Assessment of number/size/vascularity after
ablation or under palliative chemotherapy (RECIST)
Ascites
Progress assessment under palliative chemotherapy or after local
chemotherapy
Pleural effusion
Progress assessment under palliative chemotherapy or after
pleurodesis
Biliary stent
Control of palliative relief of the biliary system in bile duct,
liver, or pancreatic carcinoma
Nephrostomy
Control after relief of urinary obstruction due to bladder tumor
or pelvic tumor
Examples of palliative therapy monitoring (detection of side
effects and complications of the therapy, complications of the
tumor disease)
Complications
Goal of the monitoring
Fever
Sonographic detection of possible causes: liver abscesses,
infected urinary obstruction kidneys, obstructive
cholestasis/ cholangitis, infected retention
postoperative or postinterventional in
abdominal/retroperitoneal
Swollen extremities
Sonographic detection of thrombosis or compression of the pelvic
veins by lymph node metastases
Jugular vein congestion
Sonographic detection of lymph node metastases: cervical,
jugular, in the upper mediastinum
Jaundice
Sonographic diagnosis of obstructive cholestasis or
chemotherapy-associated steatohepatitis (CASH)
Dyspnea
Pleural effusions, pulmonary edema, pneumonia, atelectasis,
pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax, pericardial effusion
Coagulation disorder
Sonographic differentiation between CASH and diffuse liver
metastasis, obstructive cholestasis
Vomiting
Sonographic diagnosis of intestinal obstruction or motility
disorder (retention stomach, ileus, intestinal
pseudo-obstruction)
Diarrhea
Sonographic detection of inflammatory bowel wall thickening
The role of handheld ultrasound in palliative care patients with
dyspnea
Dyspnea is a prevalent symptom in PC patients, especially in the preterminal
phase. Shortness of breath was found to be one of several factors associated
with a diminished will to live [30 ]. The standard
approach to dyspnea often relies on radiologic and laboratory results.
International evidence-based recommendations for point-of-care lung ultrasound
based on the review of 320 references from 1966–2011 strongly
recommended using POCUS to detect pneumothorax, interstitial syndrome, lung
consolidation, and pleural effusions [31 ]. These
recommendations and the underlying evidence were updated in a 2021 European
Respiratory Society statement, with a call for strengthening of the evidence
through multicenter studies [32 ]. An EFSUMB
Position Paper published in 2018 also stated that HHUS can reliably be used to
determine the presence of both pulmonary edema and pleural effusions and guide
thoracentesis [26 ]. Different validation studies
have been performed in the emergency department to assess HH-POCUS’s
feasibility and accuracy compared to high-end-ultrasound systems, demonstrating
good diagnostic agreement between HHUS devices and high-end cart-based US
systems. However, the majority of these studies compared only the accuracy of
measurements and quality of still images in healthy subjects, but did not
evaluate the ability to detect specific pathological findings in patients who
are difficult to examine [33 ]
[34 ]. The utilization of HHUS devices in prehospital
settings is not yet widespread. Nevertheless, a few studies have already been
published showing promising diagnostic accuracy of lung ultrasound with HHUS
devices in the management of acute dyspnea [35 ]
[36 ]
[37 ]. The diagnostic performance of this point-of-care strategy can be
improved by including both lung and cardiac ultrasound in the initial evaluation
of acutely dyspneic patients with an HHUS device [38 ].
Numerous different lung ultrasound (LUS) protocols have been assessed and
validated, in particular the BLUE protocol (bedside lung ultrasound in
emergency) [39 ] and the PLUS (prehospital lung
ultrasound) protocol [40 ]. The ideal LUS protocol
for the out-of-hospital environment has not yet been defined [41 ]. According to a recent European Respiratory
Society publication, “it is not possible to derive a universal and
evidence-based thoracic ultrasound approach for any given clinical
scenario” [32 ].
In our recently published HH-POCUS study [28 ], the
most common findings in PC patients with dyspnea (n=65) were a large
amount of ascites (n=28), followed by pleural effusion (n=11)
([Fig. 1 ]) and a combination of both pleural
effusion and ascites (n=9) ([Fig. 2 ]).
PCNs reported that in 30 patients with fluid diagnosed in the abdominal cavity,
dyspnea (30%), pain (26.7%), and a combination of pain and
dyspnea (10%) were the most frequent symptoms that occurred with
ascites.
Fig. 1 Image from VSCAN Extend Handheld Ultrasound system
demonstrating pleural effusion of a patient during home care visit.
* shows atelectasis in the lower lobe of the lung.
** shows pleural effusion.
Fig. 2 Pathological findings detected by HH-POCUS scans performed
by palliative care physicians (PCP) (Lo H et al., unpublished data,
2020) [28 ].
Based on these results, 29 bedside paracentesis procedures and one pleural
drainage were performed, 9 patients had their medications changed, and no
complications were reported during these POCUS-guided procedures. While
thoracentesis or placement of a tunneled catheter guided by HHUS can improve the
patient’s quality of life nearing the end of life in symptomatic pleural
effusion [42 ], not all patients with malignant
pleural effusion should have a pleural intervention performed since some
patients may not benefit from such procedures. In particular this is the case
with septated effusions or with normal diaphragmatic excursions [43 ]
[44 ]. Performed by
an experienced operator, LUS may potentially guide the selection of patients who
may benefit from those who might have a poor response to a permanent drain. With
the use of speckle tracking imaging analysis and M-mode, entrapped lung can be
identified prior to effusion drainage, allowing upfront choice of the definitive
management option [32 ]
[45 ]. Complications, in particular, pneumothorax and bleeding
(hematoma, hemothorax, hemorrhage), are less common with ultrasound guidance
which also has been shown to increase clinical efficacy [46 ].
The role of handheld ultrasound in palliative care patients with suspected
ascites
In PC patients, ascites may have a range of different causes and may be
multifactorial. In terminal chronic heart or kidney failure, ascites is an
expression of hypervolemia, no longer responding to diuretics. In oncological
patients, ascites is often due to peritoneal carcinomatosis (malignant ascites)
and is then usually resistant to diuretic treatment. On the other hand, ascites
in tumor patients may also be due to albumin deficiency and/or portal
hypertension caused by extensive liver metastasis or portal vein occlusion and
then be treatable with diuretics [20 ]
[47 ]
[48 ]
[49 ]
[50 ]. Therefore,
therapeutic approaches also differ in oncologic PC patients, and diagnostic
ascites aspiration with evaluation of biochemical markers of peritoneal
carcinomatosis (e. g., serum ascites albumin difference, cholesterol,
carcinoembryonic antigen) and cytological examination may be necessary for
therapeutic decisions in cases of unclear etiology [20 ]. A large amount of fluid accumulation in the peritoneal cavity
([Fig. 3 ]) can cause abdominal distention,
pain, nausea and vomiting, dyspnea, fatigue, anorexia, and excessive weight
gain, which can lead to immobility of patients [51 ]. Although therapeutic interventions are not curative in most
cases, they improve quality of life by relieving distressing physical symptoms
[52 ]. While ultrasound-guided interventions
like paracentesis could be done safely in homecare settings, there is still
little information on the use of HHUS in homecare settings among PCPs to enhance
clinical decision-making in outpatient PC [23 ]
[53 ]. Of 123 HH-POCUS examinations
performed by PCPs on 79 PC patients in our previous HH-POCUS-study, 18
HH-POCUS-guided paracentesis procedures were performed immediately during the
first home visit to relieve the patient’s symptoms [28 ].
Fig. 3 Image from VSCAN Extend Handheld Ultrasound system
demonstrating perihepatic ascites of a patient during home care
visit.
Because the causes of ascites are often not treatable, recurrence of ascites and
the need for repeated paracentesis must be expected in PC patients. For example,
one of the patients recruited in the study mentioned above [28 ] required ten paracentesis procedures during
follow-up home visits throughout the study. Although paracentesis could be done
without imaging, some studies have found significantly fewer complications in
ultrasound-guided paracentesis [54 ]
[55 ]. In our HH-POCUS study, no complications were
reported during the procedures performed with HHUS guidance [28 ]. Ultrasound guidance gives the practitioner
greater confidence in conducting the procedure, for example, in the presence of
septations or in the case of unanticipated aspiration of bloody ascites. In
patients with abdominal distension, the absence of fluid can be an important
clinical finding because unnecessary and risky paracentesis can be avoided. In
conclusion, HHUS may facilitate more precise decisions on further treatment of
patients with suspected ascites, support safe performance of paracentesis, and
eliminate repeated hospital admissions ([Fig.
4 ]).
Fig. 4 Image demonstrating ascites in lower abdomen. HHUS is used
to demonstrate the needle tip position (red arrow) and therefore allows
safe bedside paracentesis in outpatient settings.
The role of handheld ultrasound in palliative care patients with
dysuria
Urologic emergencies such as upper and lower urinary tract obstruction, urinary
tract infection, and bladder hemorrhage are frequent in palliative care patients
[56 ]. Ureteric obstruction can result from
tumor compression or direct tumor invasion. Bladder outlet obstruction leading
to urinary retention can be due to mechanical factors involving the bladder
neck, prostate, or neuronal damage of the bladder. Focused bedside ultrasound to
examine the kidneys and the urinary tract can provide rapid diagnostic
information in lower abdominal pain or renal failure cases. The measurement of
residual urinary volumes is often one of the first encounters that junior
doctors have with ultrasound [29 ]. As shown in our
HH-POCUS study mentioned above, brief training can enable PCNs to use HHUS to
control the position of the transurethral catheter, monitor the residual urinary
volumes after transurethral catheter removal, and detect renal obstruction [28 ]. With the availability of HHUS devices during
home visits, PCPs and PCNs can make immediate bedside decisions about whether to
reposition or insert urinary catheters under HH-POCUS control, reducing the time
to relief and the need for emergency room visits in patients with clinically
suspected lower urinary tract obstruction.
Other potential indications of handheld ultrasound in palliative homecare
patients
Diagnosis of venous thromboembolism
Cancer is associated with an increased risk of thromboembolism, which may be
further increased by co-morbidities and immobility [57 ]. However, thromboembolism is also a frequent complication
among non-cancer palliative care patients [58 ]. Focused compression sonography can be performed at the bedside
using HHUS devices and spare patients an unnecessary transfer to the
hospital [59 ]. In the case of a positive
finding for venous thromboembolism, PCPs can make an on-site treatment
decision.
Ultrasound guidance in difficult peripheral venous access
Based on robust evidence [60 ], guidelines
recommend an in-plane or out-of-plane technique using a linear
high-frequency probe to avoid unnecessary pain and increase the likelihood
of successful cannulation in patients with difficult peripheral venous
access [61 ]. Recently, a review demonstrated
that non-physician medical personnel (paramedics, nurses, emergency
department technicians) are able to achieve competence in ultrasound-guided
peripheral venous access placement in patients with anticipated cannulation
difficulties with relatively little training [62 ].
Ultrasound guidance of peripheral nerve blocks
Ultrasound has been successfully used to facilitate peripheral nerve blockade
of the upper and lower extremity. This method can also be used for the
treatment of cancer-related pain. It has been used to deliver adequate
palliative analgesia [63 ] and is a valuable
tool to improve safety, success rate, and patient comfort [64 ].
Detecting ileus and monitoring disease progress
Patients with advanced peritoneal carcinomatosis may experience acute or
subacute bowel obstruction. When bowel obstruction is being considered in a
patient with unresectable peritoneal carcinomatosis, HH-POCUS can provide
timely and “just enough” clinical information at the bedside
to make a decision regarding further treatment and hospital admission [29 ].
Limitation and Challenges
Training
When performing HH-POCUS, it is crucial to be aware of device performance
limitations and the competence of the person performing the imaging. Becoming
proficient in ultrasound does require adequate training. We believe there is an
urgent need to integrate POCUS into palliative care curricula. However, the
amount of theoretical and practical training required to provide sufficient
practical skills for the use of POCUS in palliative care has to be further
evaluated in prospective studies. Specific training programs for POCUS in PC are
not currently available in Germany, but the German Society of Ultrasound in
Medicine and Biology (DEGUM) is trying to set up a suitable training program for
HH-POCUS in the form of a DEGUM module. The European Federation of Societies in
Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology (EFSUMB) with its EUROSON School on
Interventional Ultrasound offers structured training of ultrasound-guided
interventions using HHUS systems. Such training modules would supplement basic
sonographic training but not replace it.
In Germany, there is a great reluctance to educate non-physician health care
providers in performing POCUS. Given the limited availability of physicians for
home visits, especially in rural areas, it seems essential to optimize
outpatient PC so that specialized PCNs as part of PCTs can also receive
appropriate ultrasound training. The results of our recently published study
indicate that PCNs could be assigned to answer simple diagnostic questions on
POCUS examinations after a brief training period [28 ]. This result is in good agreement with other preliminary reports
that non-physician health care providers can be trained to accurately acquire
and interpret ultrasound images [65 ]
[66 ]. Another option to assist less experienced
examiners is ultrasound teleconsulting. It is now technically feasible with
almost all HHUS devices to transmit ultrasound images and a visual impression of
the patient and the positioning of the probe to a remote expert. In a web-based
live conference, the process and quality of the HH-POCUS examination can be
optimized in real time [67 ]. Comparative studies
need to clarify whether basic training on a conventional ultrasound system can
help reduce the potential for error associated with the limited image quality of
HHUS devices [25 ]. In addition, good supervision
and quality control is essential when medical services are delegated to
non-physician health care providers. Current systems only meet the requirements
of verifiable image documentation to a limited extent. National and
International Ultrasound Societies like DEGUM and EFSUMB in the future should
offer regular POCUS training programs and certification for non-physician
medical professionals.
Documentation and data security
Adequate documentation of ultrasound examinations is required by the EFSUMB as a
quality requirement [68 ] and is legally mandatory
in several European countries. However, HH-POCUS performed by the PCT at the
patient’s bedside at home challenges traditional ways of storing
ultrasound images and reporting results. In most cases, HHUS devices are not
connected to a PACS or RIS. Establishing legally acceptable technical solutions
for storing HH-POCUS images while guaranteeing data security is urgently
necessary to enable the examiner or a remote expert to review the findings in
comparison to other imaging findings [22 ]
[26 ]. On the other hand, there must be room for
simplified documentation of acutely required bedside POCUS examinations and
interventions. It is currently recommended to document clinically relevant
pathological findings in the patient’s medical record since HH-POCUS
examinations will be undertaken as part of the clinical examination [26 ].
Achieving the appropriate diagnostic balance in the last phase of
life
There is increasing debate on how cancer patients are treated near end of life.
Aggressive diagnostic imaging in this situation is contrary to the goal of
leaving PC patients in the familiar home environment and may impair quality of
life and incur high costs. The benefit of intense imaging approaches on patient
outcomes has proven difficult to assess, and treatment changes associated with
imaging findings often do not benefit patients at the end of their life [12 ]. It is therefore critical to adopt a rational
and patient-centered approach. PC does not mean "abandonment of
care" [69 ]. Treating patients with
terminal diseases is never curative. However, PC patients require management of
intercurrent conditions that compromise the quality of precious time remaining
before death. Due to the time-sensitive nature of their patients’
illness, PCPs often rely solely on the information available from the history
and physical examination for medical decision-making during home visits. Using
HHUS as a diagnostic tool in PC patients, while avoiding transport to the
hospital, allows for symptom-oriented acquisition of reliable imaging
information to expand the diagnostic and therapeutic spectrum in the event of
symptom exacerbation at the bedside, alleviate symptoms without delay, and
reduce the complications of specific palliative interventions.
Conclusion
Given changing demographics and a physician shortage in rural areas with often
overcrowded emergency departments, HH-POCUS is capable of reducing the burden of
avoidable acute care visits for PC patients. As a supplement to good history taking
and physical examination, HH-POCUS can enable more accurate diagnoses, more precise
and rapid clinical decisions, and needle-guidance of palliative interventions. Thus,
compared to referral to a specialized practice or hospital for imaging or simple
palliative interventions, the use of bedside HH-POCUS has the potential to save time
and resources and lessen the burden on PC patients associated with inconvenient
transportation and waiting times. Notwithstanding its tremendous potential, we
believe HH-POCUS is still underutilized by PCPs. According to a recent survey in
Austria, this is related to a lack of confidence and training, limited availability
and equipment costs, and concerns about clinical issues, such as challenging anatomy
[70 ]. Remote experts supervising HH-POCUS
examinations via teleconsulting could help address these issues and reduce
diagnostic uncertainty in selected cases.
In summary, HHUS is ideally suited to meet the specific diagnostic needs in the care
of palliative and terminally ill patients. It helps to fulfill their wish to spend
the final period of life in their home environment, prevents inappropriately
aggressive diagnostic interventions, and reduces high costs for hospital-based and
radiologist-performed imaging procedures in end-of-life patients.