Introduction
Introduction
A large number of hormones, neurotransmitters, chemokines, local mediators, and sensory
stimuli exert their effects on cells and organisms by binding to heterotrimetric G
protein-coupled receptors [7]
[12]. Heterotrimeric G proteins transduce ligand binding to these receptors into intracellular
signal responses, which underlie numerous physiological responses of tissues and organisms
[7]
[12].
The functional C825T polymorphism [rs5443] in exon 10 of the human guanine nucleotide
binding protein β protein polypeptide 3 (GNB3) gene, which encodes the Gβ3 subunit of G proteins was described by Siffert and co-workers
[18]. The 825T allele is associated with alternative splicing of the gene and formation
of a truncated but functionally active β3 subunit and with enhanced G protein activation
[18]. This polymorphism has been associated with multigenic disorders [19], including hypertension [1], and it seems to be a candidate for explaining human variability in exercise phenotypes.
The GNB3 C825T polymorphism plays a minor role in heart rate and body fatness regulation in
blacks, as well as in responsiveness of resting blood pressure to endurance training
in black women [14]. It is associated with VO2max in non-athletes [5], and Eynon et al. recently reported a higher frequency of the TT genotype in Israeli
elite endurance athletes than in sprinters of the same origin [4]. Whether the latter results can be extrapolated to other populations remains to
be elucidated. This is a question of interest because differences among the findings
of studies in the field of genetics and sports performance are partly attributable
to the different sizes and ethnic/geographic origin of the study populations. To replicate
these findings we compared allelic and genotypic frequencies of the GNB3 C825T polymorphism among (Caucasian) controls, elite endurance athletes, and power
athletes in subjects from Israel and Spain.
Methods
Methods
The study was approved by the Helsinki Committee of the ’Hillel-Yaffe’ Medical Center
(Hadera, Israel), and by the institutional ethics committee of the Universidad Europea
de Madrid (Madrid, Spain), according to the Declaration of Helsinki. A written informed
consent was obtained from each participant. Our study was performed according to ethical
standards in sport and exercise science research [8].
Subjects from Israel
A total of 155 elite athletes (199 men and 36 women, age 18–80 years) volunteered
to participate in the study. Athletes were included in the study sample only if they
had participated in national/international track and field championships. Athletes
were divided into 2 groups: i) endurance athletes (i. e., 74 long distance runners
whose main event was the 10 000 m run and the marathon, and ii) power athletes (i. e.,
81 sprinters whose main event was the 100–200 m dash). The control group consisted
of 240 non-athletic Israeli healthy individuals (167 men and 73 women, age 19–79 years)
who did not engage in physical activity on a regular basis. All subjects (athletes
and controls) were Israeli Caucasians, with an equivalent ratio of non-Ashkenazi and
Ashkenazi descent in each group (2:1).
Subjects from Spain
The Spanish population comprised: (i) 100 male endurance athletes aged 20–39 years
who competed within the last 10 years (50 world-class endurance runners, including
Europe champions and Olympic finalists, and 50 professional road cyclists who were
all Tour de France finishers, including top-3 finishers; (ii) 53 male power athletes
(jumpers, throwers and sprinters) aged 20–33 years who also had competed within the
last 10 years: 40 top national level with experience in international competitions
and 13 Olympic level, including Olympic finalists; and (iii) 100 healthy male non-athletic
controls (not engaged in physical activity on a regular basis; age 19–32 years). All
controls and athletes were of the same Caucasian (Spanish) descent for at least 3
generations.
Genotyping
We extracted DNA from saliva or blood samples between 2004 and 2009. In the samples
from Israeli subjects, genotyping of the GNB3 C825T polymorphism was performed using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment
length polymorphism [13]. In the samples from Spanish subjects, genotyping was performed using a newly-developed
low-density DNA microarray based on allele-specific probes [6].
Data analysis
All statistical analyses were performed using the PASW (v. 18.0 for WINDOWS, Chicago).
We used the χ2 test to compare the genotypic and allelic frequency of the GNB3 C825T polymorphism (rs5443) between the non-athletic controls of both nationalities.
Thereafter we used the same test to compare the genotypic and allelic frequency of
the following 3 groups: (i) all endurance athletes (N=174), (ii) all power athletes
(N=134), and (iii) all controls (N=340). The level of significance was set at 0.05.
Further, we performed logistic regression analysis to examine the association between
genotypes and sports performance after controlling for sex and country.
Results
Results
When joining subjects from the 2 nationalities, genotype distributions were in Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium in the control group and in the endurance group (P>0. 1), but not in the
power group (P=0.03). There were no country differences in the genotypic and allelic
frequencies (all P>0.1). [Table 1]
shows the genotype frequencies of the study polymorphism in the 3 groups. We observed
no significant differences in genotypic ([Table 1]
) and allelic ([Fig. 1]) frequencies among groups (all P>0.1). The odds ratio (OR) of being an endurance
athlete if the subject had a T allele was 0.841 (95% confidence interval: 0.638–1.110)
compared to the control group, and 1.047 (95% confidence interval: 0.751–1.461) compared
to the power group.
Fig. 1 Allelic GNB3 C825T polymorphism (rs5443) in controls, elite endurance athletes, and elite power
athletes. All P>0.1 for frequency comparison among groups.
Table 1 Genotypic and allelic frequencies of the GNB3 C825T polymorphism (rs5443) in controls (n=340), elite endurance athletes (n=174)
and elite power athletes (n=134).
<TD VALIGN="TOP">
Genotype
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
Controls (C)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
Endurance (E)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
Power (P)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
Overall P-value
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
OR C vs. E
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
P-value C vs. P
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
P-value E vs. P
</TD>
<TD VALIGN="TOP">
CC
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
38.8 (132)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
32.8 (57)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
33.6 (45)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
0.577 (χ2: 2.889)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
0.394 (χ2: 1.862)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
0.465 (χ2: 1.534)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
0.759 (χ2: 0.552)
</TD>
<TD VALIGN="TOP">
CT
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
49.7 (169)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
54.0 (94)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
56.0 (75)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
</TD>
<TD VALIGN="TOP">
TT
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
11.5 (39)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
13.2 (23)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
10.4 (14)
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
</TD><TD VALIGN="TOP">
</TD>
<TD VALIGN="TOP">
Values are % and (n)
</TD>
<TD VALIGN="TOP">
OR= odds ratio
</TD>
Discussion
Discussion
The GNB3 T allele might be theoretically advantageous for endurance exercise, as it is associated
with higher adrenergic activation, and thus with increased mobilisation of circulating
fatty acids and glucose that can be oxidised by muscle fibres [4]. However, the previous association reported by Eynon et al. [4] between the GNB3 TT genotype and elite endurance athletic status, with increased G protein activity
theoretically increasing the likelihood of being a top-level endurance athlete, was
not corroborated here in a larger cohort that also included athletes of another ethnic/geographic
origin. This finding supports the need to corroborate genotype:phenotype associations
in the field of sports genetics with the largest possible population samples, including
cohorts of different ethnic backgrounds. In fact, significant discrepancies exist
between studies on the GNB3 C825T polymorphism and disease phenotypes, which are partly attributable to between-studies
differences in the sample size and ethnic background of the cohorts. The association
between the T allele and essential hypertension reported in whites [2]
[17]
[18] and blacks [3] has not been corroborated in Asian and American Indian populations [10]
[11]. In a large cohort of Japanese diabetic patients, the 825CC genotype rather than
the 825CT genotype was associated with hyperlipidemia [9].
It must be kept in mind that achieving elite athletic status (either in power or endurance
events) is a complex trait involving the interaction of numerous phenotypes that are
not simply reducible to substrate availability (e. g. cardiopulmonary function, blood
oxygen transport capacity, muscle contractility, etc). Thus, rather that the individual effect of a given polymorphism, it is likely the combined influence of several genetic variants, each with a significant contribution, as well
as the complex interaction of genetic variants (with or without an individual contribution)
that explain individual variations in endurance/power performance [15]
[16]
[20]. Further research models in the field of sports genetics should thus account for
the polygenic nature of sports related phenotypes. Future replication studies might
also determine if the polygenic profile of elite athletes (and the combined influence
of genetic polymorphisms on their performance status) differs among ethnicities.
In summary, we did not find an association between the GNB3 C825T polymorphism and elite athletic status in a large population sample that included
top-level athletes of 2 different geographic/ethnic backgrounds.
Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement
This study was partially supported by the ‘Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias (FIS
♯PS09/00194)’.
