Disparities in Contraceptive Access and Provision

Frances Casey; Veronica Gomez-Lobo

doi:10.1055/s-0033-1348893

Seminars in Reproductive Medicine, Table of Contents

Semin Reprod Med 2013; 31(05): 347-359
DOI: 10.1055/s-0033-1348893

Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Disparities in Contraceptive Access and Provision

Frances Casey

¹Women and Infant Services, Medstar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, District of Columbia

,

Veronica Gomez-Lobo

¹Women and Infant Services, Medstar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, District of Columbia

› Author Affiliations

Abstract

Even though contraceptive coverage expands under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, reducing disparities in contraceptive access and provision requires that all providers assess their patient's reproductive life plans and that health systems work to minimize institutional and socioeconomic barriers. In this article, the challenges of providing equal access to contraceptive care, as well as recommendations for encouraging the use of effective contraception among all reproductive age women are reviewed.

Keywords

contraception - access to health services

Full Text

References

References
1 Mosher WD, Jones J. Use of contraception in the United States: 1982–2008. Vital and Health Statistics Series 23. Data from the National Survey of Family Growth; 2010: 1-44
2 Gold RB, Sonfield A, Richards CL, Frost JJ. Next Steps for America's Family Planning Program: Leveraging the Potential of Medicaid and Title X in an Evolving Health Care System. New York: Guttmacher Institute; 2009
3 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Family Planning - Objectives. Washington, DC, 2010a. Available at: http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/topicsobjectives2020/objectiveslist.aspx?topicid=13 . Accessed on June 27, 2013
4 Johnson K, Posner SF, Biermann J , et al; CDC/ATSDR Preconception Care Work Group; Select Panel on Preconception Care. Recommendations to improve preconception health and health care—United States. A report of the CDC/ATSDR Preconception Care Work Group and the Select Panel on Preconception Care. MMWR Recomm Rep 2006; 55 (RR-6): 1-23
5 Health Resources and Services Administration. Women's Preventive Services: Required Health Plan Coverage Guidelines. Washington, DC; 2010
6 Schwarz EB, Parisi SM, Williams SL, Shevchik GJ, Hess R. Promoting safe prescribing in primary care with a contraceptive vital sign: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. Ann Fam Med 2012; 10 (6) 516-522
7 Hamilton BEMJ, Ventura SJ. Births: Preliminary Data for 2010. National Center for Health Statistics; 2011: 60
8 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Sexual experience and contraceptive use among female teens - United States, 1995, 2002, and 2006-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2012; 61 (17) 297-301
9 Finer LB, Henshaw SK. Disparities in rates of unintended pregnancy in the United States, 1994 and 2001. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2006; 38 (2) 90-96
10 Chandra A, Martinez GM, Mosher WD, Abma JC, Jones J. Fertility, family planning, and reproductive health of U.S. women: data from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth. Vital Health Stat 23 2005; (25) 1-160
11 Abma JC, Martinez GM, Mosher WD, Dawson BS. Teenagers in the United States: sexual activity, contraceptive use, and childbearing, 2002. Vital Health Stat 23 2004; (24) 1-48
12 Cavazos-Rehg PA, Krauss MJ, Spitznagel EL , et al. Type of contraception method used at last intercourse and associations with health risk behaviors among US adolescents. Contraception 2010; 82 (6) 549-555
13 Sangi-Haghpeykar H, Ali N, Posner S, Poindexter AN. Disparities in contraceptive knowledge, attitude and use between Hispanic and non-Hispanic whites. Contraception 2006; 74 (2) 125-132
14 Lloyd SW, Ferguson YO, Corbie-Smith G , et al. The role of public schools in HIV prevention: perspectives from African Americans in the rural South. AIDS Educ Prev 2012; 24 (1) 41-53
15 Ito KE, Gizlice Z, Owen-O'Dowd J, Foust E, Leone PA, Miller WC. Parent opinion of sexuality education in a state with mandated abstinence education: does policy match parental preference?. J Adolesc Health 2006; 39 (5) 634-641
16 Santelli J, Ott MA, Lyon M, Rogers J, Summers D. Abstinence-only education policies and programs: a position paper of the Society for Adolescent Medicine. J Adolesc Health 2006; 38 (1) 83-87
17 Harper CC, Henderson JT, Schalet A, Becker D, Stratton L, Raine TR. Abstinence and teenagers: prevention counseling practices of health care providers serving high-risk patients in the United States. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2010; 42 (2) 125-132
18 Johnson BT, Scott-Sheldon LA, Huedo-Medina TB, Carey MP. Interventions to reduce sexual risk for human immunodeficiency virus in adolescents: a meta-analysis of trials, 1985-2008. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2011; 165 (1) 77-84
19 Bouris A, Guilamo-Ramos V, Jaccard J , et al. The feasibility of a clinic-based parent intervention to prevent HIV, sexually transmitted infections, and unintended pregnancies among Latino and African American adolescents. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2010; 24 (6) 381-387
20 Epstein LB, Sokal-Gutierrez K, Ivey SL, Raine T, Auerswald C. Adolescent experiences with the vaginal ring. J Adolesc Health 2008; 43 (1) 64-70
21 Fleming KL, Sokoloff A, Raine TR. Attitudes and beliefs about the intrauterine device among teenagers and young women. Contraception 2010; 82 (2) 178-182
22 Stanwood NL, Garrett JM, Konrad TR. Obstetrician-gynecologists and the intrauterine device: a survey of attitudes and practice. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99 (2) 275-280
23 Harper CC, Blum M, de Bocanegra HT , et al. Challenges in translating evidence to practice: the provision of intrauterine contraception. Obstet Gynecol 2008; 111 (6) 1359-1369
24 Madden T, Allsworth JE, Hladky KJ, Secura GM, Peipert JF. Intrauterine contraception in Saint Louis: a survey of obstetrician and gynecologists' knowledge and attitudes. Contraception 2010; 81 (2) 112-116
25 Shimoni N. Intrauterine contraceptives: a review of uses, side effects, and candidates. Semin Reprod Med 2010; 28 (2) 118-125
26 American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 121: Long-acting reversible contraception: Implants and intrauterine devices. Obstet Gynecol 2011; 118 (1) 184-196
27 American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Committee Opinion No.392, December 2007. Intrauterine device and adolescents. Obstet Gynecol 2007; 110 (6) 1493-1495
28 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). U.S. medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use. MMWR Recomm Rep 2010; 59 (RR-4): 1-86
29 Behringer T, Reeves MF, Rossiter B, Chen BA, Schwarz EB. Duration of use of a levonorgestrel IUS amongst nulliparous and adolescent women. Contraception 2011; 84 (5) e5-e10
30 Suhonen S, Haukkamaa M, Jakobsson T, Rauramo I. Clinical performance of a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system and oral contraceptives in young nulliparous women: a comparative study. Contraception 2004; 69 (5) 407-412
31 Winner B, Peipert JF, Zhao Q , et al. Effectiveness of long-acting reversible contraception. N Engl J Med 2012; 366 (21) 1998-2007
32 Belden P, Harper CC, Speidel JJ. The copper IUD for emergency contraception, a neglected option. Contraception 2012; 85 (4) 338-339
33 Schwarz EB, Kavanaugh M, Douglas E, Dubowitz T, Creinin MD. Interest in intrauterine contraception among seekers of emergency contraception and pregnancy testing. Obstet Gynecol 2009; 113 (4) 833-839
34 Wright RL, Frost CJ, Turok DK. A qualitative exploration of emergency contraception users' willingness to select the copper IUD. Contraception 2012; 85 (1) 32-35
35 Turok DK, Gurtcheff SE, Handley E , et al. A survey of women obtaining emergency contraception: are they interested in using the copper IUD?. Contraception 2011; 83 (5) 441-446
36 Turok DK, Gurtcheff SE, Handley E, Simonsen SE, Sok C, Murphy P. A pilot study of the Copper T380A IUD and oral levonorgestrel for emergency contraception. Contraception 2010; 82 (6) 520-525
37 Sadler LS, Chen JY, Daley AM, Leventhal JM, Reynolds H. Reproductive care and rates of pregnancy in teenagers with negative pregnancy test results. J Adolesc Health 2006; 38 (3) 222-229
38 Falk G, Falk L, Hanson U, Milsom I. Young women requesting emergency contraception are, despite contraceptive counseling, a high risk group for new unintended pregnancies. Contraception 2001; 64 (1) 23-27
39 U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Statement from FDA Commissioner Margaret Hamburg, M.D. on Plan B One-Step, Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/ucm282805htm , 2011. Accessed January 15, 2013
40 Meyer JL, Gold MA, Haggerty CL. Advance provision of emergency contraception among adolescent and young adult women: a systematic review of literature. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2011; 24 (1) 2-9
41 Raymond EG, L'Engle KL, Tolley EE, Ricciotti N, Arnold MV, Park S. Comprehension of a prototype emergency contraception package label by female adolescents. Contraception 2009; 79 (3) 199-205
42 Cremer M, Holland E, Adams B , et al. Adolescent comprehension of emergency contraception in New York City. Obstet Gynecol 2009; 113 (4) 840-844
43 Raymond EG, Chen PL, Dalebout SM. “Actual use” study of emergency contraceptive pills provided in a simulated over-the-counter manner. Obstet Gynecol 2003; 102 (1) 17-23
44 Mollen CJ, Barg FK, Hayes KL, Gotcsik M, Blades NM, Schwarz DF. Assessing attitudes about emergency contraception among urban, minority adolescent girls: an in-depth interview study. Pediatrics 2008; 122 (2) e395-e401
45 Moreau C, Bouyer J, Goulard H, Bajos N. The remaining barriers to the use of emergency contraception: perception of pregnancy risk by women undergoing induced abortions. Contraception 2005; 71 (3) 202-207
46 Vahratian A, Patel DA, Wolff K, Xu X. College students' perceptions of emergency contraception provision. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2008; 17 (1) 103-111
47 Fagan EB, Boussios HE, Moore R, Galvin SL. Knowledge, attitudes, and use of emergency contraception among rural western North Carolina women. South Med J 2006; 99 (8) 806-810
48 Raymond EG, Trussell J, Polis CB. Population effect of increased access to emergency contraceptive pills: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 2007; 109 (1) 181-188
49 Upadhya KK, Trent ME, Ellen JM. Impact of individual values on adherence to emergency contraception practice guidelines among pediatric residents: implications for training. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2009; 163 (10) 944-948
50 Whittaker PG, Berger M, Armstrong KA, Felice TL, Adams J. Characteristics associated with emergency contraception use by family planning patients: a prospective cohort study. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2007; 39 (3) 158-166
51 Karasz A, Kirchen NT, Gold M. The visit before the morning after: barriers to preprescribing emergency contraception. Ann Fam Med 2004; 2 (4) 345-350
52 Kavanaugh ML, Williams SL, Schwarz EB. Emergency contraception use and counseling after changes in United States prescription status. Fertil Steril 2011; 95 (8) 2578-2581
53 Kavanaugh ML, Schwarz EB. Counseling about and use of emergency contraception in the United States. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2008; 40 (2) 81-86
54 Xu X, Vahratian A, Patel DA, McRee AL, Ransom SB. Emergency contraception provision: a survey of Michigan physicians from five medical specialties. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2007; 16 (4) 489-498
55 Richman AR, Daley EM, Baldwin J, Kromrey J, O'Rourke K, Perrin K. The role of pharmacists and emergency contraception: are pharmacists' perceptions of emergency contraception predictive of their dispensing practices?. Contraception 2012; 86 (4) 370-375
56 Bennett W, Petraitis C, D'Anella A, Marcella S. Pharmacists' knowledge and the difficulty of obtaining emergency contraception. Contraception 2003; 68 (4) 261-267
57 Polis C, Schaffer K, Harrison T. Accessibility of emergency contraception in California's Catholic hospitals. Womens Health Issues 2005; 15 (4) 174-178
58 Guttmacher Institute. Emergency Contraception, State Policies in Brief. Available at: http://wwwguttmacherorg/statecenter/spibs/spib_ECpdf . Accessed January 1, 2013
59 Nelson AL, Jaime CM. Accuracy of information given by Los Angeles County pharmacies about emergency contraceptives to sham patient in need. Contraception 2009; 79 (3) 206-210
60 Sampson O, Navarro SK, Khan A , et al. Barriers to adolescents' getting emergency contraception through pharmacy access in California: differences by language and region. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2009; 41 (2) 110-118
61 Ward KK, Roncancio AM, Berenson AB. Cultural adaptation among Hispanic women as related to awareness and acquisition of emergency contraception. Contraception 2010; 82 (6) 534-537
62 Gariepy AM, Simon EJ, Patel DA, Creinin MD, Schwarz EB. The impact of out-of-pocket expense on IUD utilization among women with private insurance. Contraception 2011; 84 (6) e39-e42
63 Marcell AV, Waks AB, Rutkow L, McKenna R, Rompalo A, Hogan MT. What do we know about males and emergency contraception? A synthesis of the literature. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2012; 44 (3) 184-193
64 Kenyon DB, Sieving RE, Jerstad SJ, Pettingell SL, Skay CL. Individual, interpersonal, and relationship factors predicting hormonal and condom use consistency among adolescent girls. J Pediatr Health Care 2010; 24 (4) 241-249
65 The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy Bedsider. Available at: http://wwwthenationalcampaignorg/bedsider/2012
66 Selkie EM, Benson M, Moreno M. Adolescents' views regarding uses of social networking Websites and text messaging for adolescent sexual health education. Am J Health Educ 2011; 42 (4) 205-212
67 Borzekowski DL. Adolescents' use of the Internet: a controversial, coming-of-age resource. Adolesc Med Clin 2006; 17 (1) 205-216
68 Levine D, McCright J, Dobkin L, Woodruff AJ, Klausner JD. SEXINFO: a sexual health text messaging service for San Francisco youth. Am J Public Health 2008; 98 (3) 393-395
69 Buhi ER, Daley EM, Fuhrmann HJ, Smith SA. An observational study of how young people search for online sexual health information. J Am Coll Health 2009; 58 (2) 101-111
70 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2010. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2011
71 US Department of Health and Human Services. June 2012: Teens and the HIV/AIDS Epidemic. US Department of Health and Human Services; 2012
72 Warner L, Newman DR, Austin HD , et al; Project RESPECT Study Group. Condom effectiveness for reducing transmission of gonorrhea and chlamydia: the importance of assessing partner infection status. Am J Epidemiol 2004; 159 (3) 242-251
73 Carey RF, Herman WA, Retta SM, Rinaldi JE, Herman BA, Athey TW. Effectiveness of latex condoms as a barrier to human immunodeficiency virus-sized particles under conditions of simulated use. Sex Transm Dis 1992; 19 (4) 230-234
74 Pedlow CT, Carey MP. Developmentally appropriate sexual risk reduction interventions for adolescents: rationale, review of interventions, and recommendations for research and practice. Ann Behav Med 2004; 27 (3) 172-184
75 Greene JM, Ringwalt CL. Pregnancy among three national samples of runaway and homeless youth. J Adolesc Health 1998; 23 (6) 370-377
76 Crawford DM, Trotter EC, Hartshorn KJ, Whitbeck LB. Pregnancy and mental health of young homeless women. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2011; 81 (2) 173-183
77 Ammerman SD, Kirzner R, Meininger E , et al. Homeless Young Adults Ages 18–24: Examining Service Delivery Adaptations. Nashville, TN: National Health Care for the Homeless Council, Inc; 2004
78 Greene JM, Ennett ST, Ringwalt CL. Prevalence and correlates of survival sex among runaway and homeless youth. Am J Public Health 1999; 89 (9) 1406-1409
79 Haley N, Roy E, Leclerc P, Boudreau JF, Boivin JF. Characteristics of adolescent street youth with a history of pregnancy. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2004; 17 (5) 313-320
80 Thompson SJ, Bender KA, Lewis CM, Watkins R. Runaway and pregnant: risk factors associated with pregnancy in a national sample of runaway/homeless female adolescents. J Adolesc Health 2008; 43 (2) 125-132
81 Stein JA, Lu MC, Gelberg L. Severity of homelessness and adverse birth outcomes. Health Psychol 2000; 19 (6) 524-534
82 Hathazi D, Lankenau SE, Sanders B, Jackson Bloom J. Pregnancy and sexual health among homeless young injection drug users. J Adolesc 2009; 32 (2) 339-355
83 Halcon LL, Lifson AR. Prevalence and predictors of sexual risk among homeless youth. J Youth Adolesc 2004; 33 (1) 71-80
84 Tucker JS, Sussell J, Golinelli D, Zhou A, Kennedy DP, Wenzel SL. Understanding pregnancy-related attitudes and behaviors: a mixed-methods study of homeless youth. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2012; 44 (4) 252-261
85 Tucker JS, Ryan GW, Golinelli D , et al. Substance use and other risk factors for unprotected sex: results from an event-based study of homeless youth. AIDS Behav 2012; 16 (6) 1699-1707
86 Terry MJ, Bedi G, Patel N. Healthcare Needs of Homeless Youth in the United States. J Pediatric Sciences 2010; 2 (1)
87 Smid MSBP, Bourgois P, Auerswald CL. The challenge of pregnancy among homeless youth: reclaiming a lost opportunity. J Health Care Poor Underserved 2010; 21 2, (Suppl): 140-156
88 Murdoch M, Pryor JB, Polusny MA, Gackstetter GD. Functioning and psychiatric symptoms among military men and women exposed to sexual stressors. Mil Med 2007; 172 (7) 718-725
89 Kimerling R, Gima K, Smith MW, Street A, Frayne S. The Veterans Health Administration and military sexual trauma. Am J Public Health 2007; 97 (12) 2160-2166
90 Vogt D, Bruce TA, Street AE, Stafford J. Attitudes toward women and tolerance for sexual harassment among reservists. Violence Against Women 2007; 13 (9) 879-900
91 Street AE, Gradus JL, Stafford J, Kelly K. Gender differences in experiences of sexual harassment: data from a male-dominated environment. J Consult Clin Psychol 2007; 75 (3) 464-474
92 Thomson BA, Nielsen PE. Women's health care in Operation Iraqi Freedom: a survey of camps with echelon I or II facilities. Mil Med 2006; 171 (3) 216-219
93 Goyal V, Borrero S, Schwarz EB. Unintended pregnancy and contraception among active-duty servicewomen and veterans. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012; 206 (6) 463-469
94 Holt K, Grindlay K, Taskier M, Grossman D. Unintended pregnancy and contraceptive use among women in the U.S. military: a systematic literature review. Mil Med 2011; 176 (9) 1056-1064
95 Nielsen PE, Murphy CS, Schulz J , et al. Female soldiers' gynecologic healthcare in Operation Iraqi Freedom: a survey of camps with echelon three facilities. Mil Med 2009; 174 (11) 1172-1176
96 Grindlay K, Grossman D. Unintended pregnancy among active-duty women in the United States military, 2008. Obstet Gynecol 2013; 121 (2 Pt 1) 241-246
97 Christopher LA, Miller L. Women in war: operational issues of menstruation and unintended pregnancy. Mil Med 2007; 172 (1) 9-16
98 Grindlay K, Grossman D. Contraception access and use among U.S. servicewomen during deployment. Contraception 2013; 87 (2) 162-169
99 Nielsen PE, Towers GD, O'Boyle AL. Unintended pregnancy among active-duty servicewomen and veterans. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2013; 208 (4) 334
100 Jacobson JC, Jensen JT. A policy of discrimination: reproductive health care in the military. Womens Health Issues 2011; 21 (4) 255-258
101 Upson K, Reed SD, Prager SW, Schiff MA. Factors associated with contraceptive nonuse among US women ages 35-44 years at risk of unwanted pregnancy. Contraception 2010; 81 (5) 427-434
102 Godfrey EM, Chin NP, Fielding SL, Fiscella K, Dozier A. Contraceptive methods and use by women aged 35 and over: a qualitative study of perspectives. BMC Womens Health 2011; 11: 5
103 Hoffman MC, Jeffers S, Carter J, Duthely L, Cotter A, González-Quintero VH. Pregnancy at or beyond age 40 years is associated with an increased risk of fetal death and other adverse outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 196 (5) e11-e13
104 Pazol K, Creanga AA, Zane SB, Burley KD, Jamieson DJ. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Abortion surveillance—United States, 2009. MMWR Surveill Summ 2012; 61 (8) 1-44
105 Burger HG, Dudley EC, Robertson DM, Dennerstein L. Hormonal changes in the menopause transition. Recent Prog Horm Res 2002; 57: 257-275
106 Hee J, MacNaughton J, Bangah M, Burger HG. Perimenopausal patterns of gonadotrophins, immunoreactive inhibin, oestradiol and progesterone. Maturitas 1993; 18 (1) 9-20
107 Kailas NA, Sifakis S, Koumantakis E. Contraception during perimenopause. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2005; 10 (1) 19-25
108 Toner JP, Flood JT. Fertility after the age of 40. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1993; 20 (2) 261-272
109 Schmidt-Sarosi C. Infertility in the older woman. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1998; 41 (4) 940-950
110 Clinical Effectiveness Unit. Contraception for women aged 40 years. London (England): Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare (FSRH) 2010 Jul. 26. http://www.guideline.gov/content.aspx?id=24716 . Accessed January 16, 2013
111 Kaunitz AM. Clinical practice. Hormonal contraception in women of older reproductive age. N Engl J Med 2008; 358 (12) 1262-1270
112 Gardner FJ, Konje JC, Abrams KR , et al. Endometrial protection from tamoxifen-stimulated changes by a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 356 (9243) 1711-1717
113 Hubacher D, Grimes DA. Noncontraceptive health benefits of intrauterine devices: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2002; 57 (2) 120-128
114 Saewyc EM, Bauer GR, Skay CL , et al. Measuring sexual orientation in adolescent health surveys: evaluation of eight school-based surveys. J Adolesc Health 2004; 35 (4) e1-e15
115 Saewyc EM, Poon CS, Homma Y, Skay CL. Stigma management? The links between enacted stigma and teen pregnancy trends among gay, lesbian, and bisexual students in British Columbia. Can J Hum Sex 2008; 17 (3) 123-139
116 Saewyc EM, Bearinger LH, Blum RW, Resnick MD. Sexual intercourse, abuse and pregnancy among adolescent women: does sexual orientation make a difference?. Fam Plann Perspect 1999; 31 (3) 127-131
117 Fethers K, Marks C, Mindel A, Estcourt CS. Sexually transmitted infections and risk behaviours in women who have sex with women. Sex Transm Infect 2000; 76 (5) 345-349
118 Stevens PE, Hall JM. Sexuality and safer sex: the issues for lesbians and bisexual women. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2001; 30 (4) 439-447
119 Marrazzo JM, Stine K. Reproductive health history of lesbians: implications for care. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 190 (5) 1298-1304
120 Case P, Austin SB, Hunter DJ , et al. Sexual orientation, health risk factors, and physical functioning in the Nurses' Health Study II. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2004; 13 (9) 1033-1047
121 Cochran SD, Mays VM, Bowen D , et al. Cancer-related risk indicators and preventive screening behaviors among lesbians and bisexual women. Am J Public Health 2001; 91 (4) 591-597
122 Enger SM, Ross RK, Henderson B, Bernstein L. Breastfeeding history, pregnancy experience and risk of breast cancer. Br J Cancer 1997; 76 (1) 118-123
123 Løchen ML, Lund E. Childbearing and mortality from cancer of the corpus uteri. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1997; 76 (4) 373-377
124 Koh AS. Use of preventive health behaviors by lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women: questionnaire survey. West J Med 2000; 172 (6) 379-384
125 Tracy JK, Lydecker AD, Ireland L. Barriers to cervical cancer screening among lesbians. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2010; 19 (2) 229-237
126 Office on Women's Health US Department of Health and Human Services. Lesbian Health fact Sheet. The Institute of Medicine Report.. Available at: http://womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/lesbian-bisexual-health.cfm . Accessed 2011
127 Smith EM, Johnson SR, Guenther SM. Health care attitudes and experiences during gynecologic care among lesbians and bisexuals. Am J Public Health 1985; 75 (9) 1085-1087
128 Mravcak SA. Primary care for lesbians and bisexual women. Am Fam Physician 2006; 74 (2) 279-286
129 Association of Reproductive Health Professionals. What You Need to Know: Optimizing Reproductive Health Care of Women Who Have Sex with Women. . Available at: http://wwwarhporg/publications-and-resources/clinical-fact-sheets/wsw . Accessed August 2008
130 Finer LB, Zolna MR. Unintended pregnancy in the United States: incidence and disparities, 2006. Contraception 2011; 84 (5) 478-485
131 Dehlendorf C, Rodriguez MI, Levy K, Borrero S, Steinauer J. Disparities in family planning. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2010; 202 (3) 214-220
132 Guendelman S, Denny C, Mauldon J, Chetkovich C. Perceptions of hormonal contraceptive safety and side effects among low-income Latina and non-Latina women. Matern Child Health J 2000; 4 (4) 233-239
133 Thorburn S, Bogart LM. Conspiracy beliefs about birth control: barriers to pregnancy prevention among African Americans of reproductive age. Health Educ Behav 2005; 32 (4) 474-487
134 Kuiper H, Miller S, Martinez E, Loeb L, Darney P. Urban adolescent females' views on the implant and contraceptive decision-making: a double paradox. Fam Plann Perspect 1997; 29 (4) 167-172
135 Biggs MA, Foster DG. Misunderstanding the risk of conception from unprotected and protected sex. Womens Health Issues 2013; 23 (1) e47-e53
136 Roberts D. The pill at 40—a new look at a familiar method. Black women and the pill. Fam Plann Perspect 2000; 32 (2) 92-93
137 Borrero S, Abebe K, Dehlendorf C , et al. Racial variation in tubal sterilization rates: role of patient-level factors. Fertil Steril 2011; 95 (1) 17-22
138 Kossler K, Kuroki LM, Allsworth JE, Secura GM, Roehl KA, Peipert JF. Perceived racial, socioeconomic and gender discrimination and its impact on contraceptive choice. Contraception 2011; 84 (3) 273-279
139 Borrero S, Nikolajski C, Rodriguez KL, Creinin MD, Arnold RM, Ibrahim SA. “Everything I know I learned from my mother...Or not”: perspectives of African-American and white women on decisions about tubal sterilization. J Gen Intern Med 2009; 24 (3) 312-319
140 Althoff MD, Anderson-Smits C, Kovacs S , et al. Patterns and Predictors of Multiple Sexual Partnerships Among Newly Arrived Latino Migrant Men. AIDS Behav 2012;
141 Kissinger P, Kovacs S, Anderson-Smits C , et al. Patterns and predictors of HIV/STI risk among Latino migrant men in a new receiving community. AIDS Behav 2012; 16 (1) 199-213
142 Delgado E, Castrucci BC, Fonseca V, Dutton RJ, Berrahou F. Lessons learned from a binational survey to examine women's health status in the US-Mexico border region. Prev Chronic Dis 2008; 5 (4) A107
143 Wingo PA, Kulkarni A, Borrud LG, McDonald JA, Villalobos SA, Green DC. Health disparities among Mexican American women aged 15-44 years: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2004. Am J Public Health 2009; 99 (7) 1300-1307
144 Spence NJ, Brewster KL. Adolescents' Sexual Initiation: The Interaction of Race/Ethnicity and Immigrant Status. Popul Res Policy Rev 2010; 29 (3) 339-362
145 Dehlendorf C, Marchi K, Vittinghoff E, Braveman P. Sociocultural determinants of teenage childbearing among Latinas in California. Matern Child Health J 2010; 14 (2) 194-201
146 Cashman R, Eng E, Simán F, Rhodes SD. Exploring the sexual health priorities and needs of immigrant Latinas in the southeastern United States: a community-based participatory research approach. AIDS Educ Prev 2011; 23 (3) 236-248
147 Dehlendorf C, Ruskin R, Grumbach K , et al. Recommendations for intrauterine contraception: a randomized trial of the effects of patients' race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2010; 203 (4) e1-e8
148 Borrero S, Schwarz EB, Creinin M, Ibrahim S. The impact of race and ethnicity on receipt of family planning services in the United States. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2009; 18 (1) 91-96
149 Harrison DD, Cooke CW. An elucidation of factors influencing physicians' willingness to perform elective female sterilization. Obstet Gynecol 1988; 72 (4) 565-570
150 Yee L, Simon M. The role of the social network in contraceptive decision-making among young, African American and Latina women. J Adolesc Health 2010; 47 (4) 374-380
151 Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK , et al. Prevalence of Obesity in the United States, 2009–2010. NCHS Data Brief; 2012: 1-8
152 Frieden TR. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Forward: CDC Health Disparities and Inequalities Report - United States, 2011. MMWR Surveill Summ 2011; 60 (Suppl): 1-2
153 Gosman GG, King WC, Schrope B , et al. Reproductive health of women electing bariatric surgery. Fertil Steril 2010; 94 (4) 1426-1431
154 Speroff L, Glass RH, Kase NG. Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999
155 Kaneshiro B. Contraceptive use and sexual behavior in obese women. Semin Reprod Med 2012; 30 (6) 459-464
156 Wingood GM, DiClemente RJ, Harrington K, Davies SL. Body image and African American females' sexual health. J Womens Health Gend Based Med 2002; 11 (5) 433-439
157 Zera C, McGirr S, Oken E. Screening for obesity in reproductive-aged women. Prev Chronic Dis 2011; 8 (6) A125
158 Cedergren MI. Maternal morbid obesity and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcome. Obstet Gynecol 2004; 103 (2) 219-224
159 Kaneshiro B, Edelman A, Carlson N, Nichols M, Jensen J. The relationship between body mass index and unintended pregnancy: results from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth. Contraception 2008; 77 (4) 234-238
160 Chuang CH, Chase GA, Bensyl DM, Weisman CS. Contraceptive use by diabetic and obese women. Womens Health Issues 2005; 15 (4) 167-173
161 Vahratian A, Barber JS, Lawrence JM, Kim C. Family-planning practices among women with diabetes and overweight and obese women in the 2002 National Survey For Family Growth. Diabetes Care 2009; 32 (6) 1026-1031
162 Marceau P, Kaufman D, Biron S , et al. Outcome of pregnancies after biliopancreatic diversion. Obes Surg 2004; 14 (3) 318-324
163 Abdollahi M, Cushman M, Rosendaal FR. Obesity: risk of venous thrombosis and the interaction with coagulation factor levels and oral contraceptive use. Thromb Haemost 2003; 89 (3) 493-498
164 Higginbotham S. Society of Family Planning. Contraceptive considerations in obese women: release date 1 September 2009, SFP Guideline 20091. Contraception 2009; 80 (6) 583-590
165 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use 2010. MWWR; 2010: 59
166 Trussell J, Guthrie KA, Schwarz EB. Much ado about little: obesity, combined hormonal contraceptive use and venous thrombosis. Contraception 2008; 77 (3) 143-146
167 Larsen TB, Sørensen HT, Gislum M, Johnsen SP. Maternal smoking, obesity, and risk of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium: a population-based nested case-control study. Thromb Res 2007; 120 (4) 505-509
168 Varma R, Sinha D, Gupta JK. Non-contraceptive uses of levonorgestrel-releasing hormone system (LNG-IUS)—a systematic enquiry and overview. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2006; 125 (1) 9-28
169 Wee CC, Phillips RS, McCarthy EP. BMI and cervical cancer screening among white, African-American, and Hispanic women in the United States. Obes Res 2005; 13 (7) 1275-1280
170 Wee CC, McCarthy EP, Davis RB, Phillips RS. Obesity and breast cancer screening. J Gen Intern Med 2004; 19 (4) 324-331
171 Wee CC, McCarthy EP, Davis RB, Phillips RS. Screening for cervical and breast cancer: is obesity an unrecognized barrier to preventive care?. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132 (9) 697-704
172 Amy NK, Aalborg A, Lyons P, Keranen L. Barriers to routine gynecological cancer screening for White and African-American obese women. Int J Obes (Lond) 2006; 30 (1) 147-155
173 Drury CA, Louis M. Exploring the association between body weight, stigma of obesity, and health care avoidance. J Am Acad Nurse Pract 2002; 14 (12) 554-561
174 Puhl RM, Heuer CA. Obesity stigma: important considerations for public health. Am J Public Health 2010; 100 (6) 1019-1028
175 Adams CH, Smith NJ, Wilbur DC, Grady KE. The relationship of obesity to the frequency of pelvic examinations: do physician and patient attitudes make a difference?. Women Health 1993; 20 (2) 45-57
176 Jamieson DJ, Hillis SD, Duerr A, Marchbanks PA, Costello C, Peterson HB. Complications of interval laparoscopic tubal sterilization: findings from the United States Collaborative Review of Sterilization. Obstet Gynecol 2000; 96 (6) 997-1002
177 Puhl RM. Strategies to Reduce Weight Bias in the Women's Healthcare Setting. Medscape Public Health > Yale Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity, Nov 03, 2010. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/731304 . Accessed December 12, 2012
178 Rahman FZ, Rahman J, Al-Suleiman SA, Rahman MS. Pregnancy outcome in lupus nephropathy. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2005; 271 (3) 222-226
179 Wagner SJ, Craici I, Reed D , et al. Maternal and foetal outcomes in pregnant patients with active lupus nephritis. Lupus 2009; 18 (4) 342-347
180 Clowse ME, Magder LS, Witter F, Petri M. The impact of increased lupus activity on obstetric outcomes. Arthritis Rheum 2005; 52 (2) 514-521
181 Hayslett JP. Maternal and fetal complications in pregnant women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Kidney Dis 1991; 17 (2) 123-126
182 Bobrie G, Liote F, Houillier P, Grünfeld JP, Jungers P. Pregnancy in lupus nephritis and related disorders. Am J Kidney Dis 1987; 9 (4) 339-343
183 Andreoli L, Fredi M, Nalli C , et al. Pregnancy implications for systemic lupus erythematosus and the antiphospholipid syndrome. J Autoimmun 2012; 38 (2-3) J197-J208
184 Yazdany J, Trupin L, Kaiser R , et al. Contraceptive counseling and use among women with systemic lupus erythematosus: a gap in health care quality?. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2011; 63 (3) 358-365
185 Steinhoff BJ. Pregnancy, epilepsy, and anticonvulsants. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2008; 10 (1) 63-75
186 May TW, Pfäfflin M, Coban I, Schmitz B. [Fears, knowledge, and need of counseling for women with epilepsy. Results of an outpatient study]. Nervenarzt 2009; 80 (2) 174-183
187 Mattson RH, Cramer JA, Darney PD, Naftolin F. Use of oral contraceptives by women with epilepsy. JAMA 1986; 256 (2) 238-240
188 Fairgrieve SD, Jackson M, Jonas P , et al. Population based, prospective study of the care of women with epilepsy in pregnancy. BMJ 2000; 321 (7262) 674-675
189 Herzog AG, Drislane FW, Schomer DL , et al. Differential effects of antiepileptic drugs on sexual function and reproductive hormones in men with epilepsy: interim analysis of a comparison between lamotrigine and enzyme-inducing antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 2004; 45 (7) 764-768
190 Krauss GL, Brandt J, Campbell M, Plate C, Summerfield M. Antiepileptic medication and oral contraceptive interactions: a national survey of neurologists and obstetricians. Neurology 1996; 46 (6) 1534-1539
191 Reddy DS. Clinical pharmacokinetic interactions between antiepileptic drugs and hormonal contraceptives. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2010; 3 (2) 183-192
192 Dutton C, Foldvary-Schaefer N. Contraception in women with epilepsy: pharmacokinetic interactions, contraceptive options, and management. Int Rev Neurobiol 2008; 83: 113-134
193 Schwenkhagen AM, Stodieck SR. Which contraception for women with epilepsy?. Seizure 2008; 17 (2) 145-150
194 O'Brien MD, Gilmour-White SK. Management of epilepsy in women. Postgrad Med J 2005; 81 (955) 278-285
195 Coverdale JH, Turbott SH, Roberts H. Family planning needs and STD risk behaviours of female psychiatric out-patients. Br J Psychiatry 1997; 171: 69-72
196 Kessler RC, Frank RG. The impact of psychiatric disorders on work loss days. Psychol Med 1997; 27 (4) 861-873
197 Coverdale JH, Aruffo JA. Family planning needs of female chronic psychiatric outpatients. Am J Psychiatry 1989; 146 (11) 1489-1491
198 McKinnon K, Cournos F, Sugden R, Guido JR, Herman R. The relative contributions of psychiatric symptoms and AIDS knowledge to HIV risk behaviors among people with severe mental illness. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57 (11) 506-513
199 Meade CS, Sikkema KJ. HIV risk behavior among adults with severe mental illness: a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev 2005; 25 (4) 433-457
200 Meade CS, Kershaw TS, Hansen NB, Sikkema KJ. Long-term correlates of childhood abuse among adults with severe mental illness: adult victimization, substance abuse, and HIV sexual risk behavior. AIDS Behav 2009; 13 (2) 207-216
201 Meade CS, Sikkema KJ. Psychiatric and psychosocial correlates of sexual risk behavior among adults with severe mental illness. Community Ment Health J 2007; 43 (2) 153-169
202 Gordon CM, Carey MP, Carey KB, Maisto SA, Weinhardt LS. Understanding HIV-related risk among persons with a severe and persistent mental illness: insights from qualitative inquiry. J Nerv Ment Dis 1999; 187 (4) 208-216
203 Otto-Salaj LL, Heckman TG, Stevenson LY, Kelly JA. Patterns, predictors and gender differences in HIV risk among severely mentally ill men and women. Community Ment Health J 1998; 34 (2) 175-190
204 McKinnon K, Cournos F, Herman R. HIV among people with chronic mental illness. Psychiatr Q 2002; 73 (1) 17-31
205 Kessler RC, Berglund PA, Foster CL, Saunders WB, Stang PE, Walters EE. Social consequences of psychiatric disorders, II: Teenage parenthood. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154 (10) 1405-1411
206 Tenkku LE, Flick LH, Homan S, Loveland Cook CA, Campbell C, McSweeney M. Psychiatric disorders among low-income women and unintended pregnancies. Womens Health Issues 2009; 19 (5) 313-324
207 Rosen DWL, Tolman RM. Comparing psychiatric service use among low-income women and women in a general household population. Soc Work Res 2006; 30: 223-232
208 Collins PY, von Unger H, Armbrister A. Church ladies, good girls, and locas: stigma and the intersection of gender, ethnicity, mental illness, and sexuality in relation to HIV risk. Soc Sci Med 2008; 67 (3) 389-397
209 Collins PY, Elkington KS, von Unger H, Sweetland A, Wright ER, Zybert PA. Relationship of stigma to HIV risk among women with mental illness. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2008; 78 (4) 498-506
210 Cournos FHR, Kaplan M, McKinnon K. AIDS prevention for people with severe mental illness. J Pract Psychiatry Behav Health 1997; 3: 285-292
211 Carey MP, Morrison-Beedy D, Carey KB, Maisto SA, Gordon CM, Pedlow CT. Psychiatric outpatients report their experiences as participants in a randomized clinical trial. J Nerv Ment Dis 2001; 189 (5) 299-306
212 Paransky OI, Zurawin RK. Management of menstrual problems and contraception in adolescents with mental retardation: a medical, legal, and ethical review with new suggested guidelines. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2003; 16 (4) 223-235
213 Becker H, Stuifbergen A, Tinkle M. Reproductive health care experiences of women with physical disabilities: a qualitative study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997; 78 (12) (Suppl. 05) S26-S33
214 Nosek MA, Howland C, Rintala DH, Young ME, Chanpong GF. National Study of Women with Physical Disabilities: Final Report. Sexuality and Disability 2001; 19 (1) 5-40
215 Cheng MM, Udry JR. Sexual behaviors of physically disabled adolescents in the United States. J Adolesc Health 2002; 31 (1) 48-58
216 Cardenas DD, Topolski TD, White CJ, McLaughlin JF, Walker WO. Sexual functioning in adolescents and young adults with spina bifida. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008; 89 (1) 31-35
217 Surís JC, Resnick MD, Cassuto N, Blum RW. Sexual behavior of adolescents with chronic disease and disability. J Adolesc Health 1996; 19 (2) 124-131
218 Nosek MA, Wuermser L, Walter LJ. Differences in contraceptive methods used by women with physical disabilities compared to women without disabilities. Prim Care Update Ob Gyns 1998; 5 (4) 172-173
219 Thierry JM. The importance of preconception care for women with disabilities. Matern Child Health J 2006; 10 5, (Suppl): S175-S176
220 American College of Obstetrics & Gynecology. Special Issues in Women's Health. Washington, DC: ACOG; 2004
221 Quint EH. Menstrual issues in adolescents with physical and developmental disabilities. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1135: 230-236
222 Niggemann B, Buck D, Michael T, Wahn U. Latex provocation tests in patients with spina bifida: who is at risk of becoming symptomatic?. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998; 102 (4 Pt 1) 665-670
223 Bernardini R, Novembre E, Lombardi E , et al. Prevalence of and risk factors for latex sensitization in patients with spina bifida. J Urol 1998; 160 (5) 1775-1778
224 Haefner HK, Elkins TE. Contraceptive management for female adolescents with mental retardation and handicapping disabilities. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1991; 3 (6) 820-824
225 Egan TM, Siegert RJ, Fairley NA. Use of hormonal contraceptives in an institutional setting: reasons for use, consent and safety in women with psychiatric and intellectual disabilities. N Z Med J 1993; 106 (961) 338-341
226 Pillai M, O'Brien K, Hill E. The levonorgestrel intrauterine system (Mirena) for the treatment of menstrual problems in adolescents with medical disorders, or physical or learning disabilities. BJOG 2010; 117 (2) 216-221
227 Jackson AB, Mott PK. Reproductive health care for women with spina bifida. ScientificWorldJournal 2007; 7: 1875-1883
228 Krassioukov A, Warburton DE, Teasell R, Eng JJ. Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation Evidence Research Team. A systematic review of the management of autonomic dysreflexia after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009; 90 (4) 682-695
229 Wehmeyer ML, Bolding N. Enhanced self-determination of adults with intellectual disability as an outcome of moving to community-based work or living environments. J Intellect Disabil Res 2001; 45 (Pt 5) 371-383
230 Aunos M, Feldman MA. Attitudes towards sexuality, sterilization and parenting rights of persons with intellectual disabilities. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil 2002; 15 (4) 285-296
231 Wilkinson JE, Cerreto MC. Primary care for women with intellectual disabilities. J Am Board Fam Med 2008; 21 (3) 215-222
232 Finocchario-Kessler S, Dariotis JK, Sweat MD , et al. Do HIV-infected women want to discuss reproductive plans with providers, and are those conversations occurring?. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2010; 24 (5) 317-323
233 Watts DH, Huang S, Cohn SE, Smith L, Hitti J. Repeat pregnancies among HIV-infected women enrolled in clinical trial PACTG1022. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 51 (2) 231-233
234 Lindsay MK, Grant J, Peterson HB, Willis S, Nelson P, Klein L. The impact of knowledge of human immunodeficiency virus serostatus on contraceptive choice and repeat pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 85 (5 Pt 1) 675-679
235 Massad LS, Springer G, Jacobson L , et al. Pregnancy rates and predictors of conception, miscarriage and abortion in US women with HIV. AIDS 2004; 18 (2) 281-286
236 Kline A, Strickler J, Kempf J. Factors associated with pregnancy and pregnancy resolution in HIV seropositive women. Soc Sci Med 1995; 40 (11) 1539-1547
237 Stanwood NL, Cohn SE, Heiser JR, Pugliese M. Contraception and fertility plans in a cohort of HIV-positive women in care. Contraception 2007; 75 (4) 294-298
238 Department of Health And Human Services. Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. Available at: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/aa_recommendations.pdf . Accessed January 25, 2013; Updated March 27, 2012
239 Gruskin S, Ferguson L, O'Malley J. Ensuring sexual and reproductive health for people living with HIV: an overview of key human rights, policy and health systems issues. Reprod Health Matters 2007; 15 29, (Suppl): 4-26
240 Spaulding AB, Brickley DB, Kennedy C , et al. Linking family planning with HIV/AIDS interventions: a systematic review of the evidence. AIDS 2009; 23 (Suppl. 01) S79-S88
241 Massad LS, Evans CT, Wilson TE , et al. Contraceptive use among U.S. women with HIV. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2007; 16 (5) 657-666
242 Sun M, Peipert JF, Zhao Q , et al. Trends in contraceptive use among women with human immunodeficiency virus. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 120 (4) 783-790
243 Mitchell HS, Stephens E. Contraception choice for HIV positive women. Sex Transm Infect 2004; 80 (3) 167-173
244 Ouellet D, Hsu A, Qian J , et al. Effect of ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of ethinyl oestradiol in healthy female volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 46 (2) 111-116
245 Dickinson BD, Altman RD, Nielsen NH, Sterling ML. Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association. Drug interactions between oral contraceptives and antibiotics. Obstet Gynecol 2001; 98 (5 Pt 1) 853-860
246 Hel Z, Stringer E, Mestecky J. Sex steroid hormones, hormonal contraception, and the immunobiology of human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection. Endocr Rev 2010; 31 (1) 79-97
247 Phillips SJ, Curtis KM, Polis CB. Effect of hormonal contraceptive methods on HIV disease progression: a Systematic Review. AIDS 2012;
248 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update to CDC's U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2010: revised recommendations for the use of hormonal contraception among women at high risk for HIV infection or infected with HIV. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2012; 61 (24) 449-452
249 Curtis KM, Nanda K, Kapp N. Safety of hormonal and intrauterine methods of contraception for women with HIV/AIDS: a systematic review. AIDS 2009; 23 (Suppl. 01) S55-S67
250 Morrison CS, Sekadde-Kigondu C, Sinei SK, Weiner DH, Kwok C, Kokonya D. Is the intrauterine device appropriate contraception for HIV-1-infected women?. BJOG 2001; 108 (8) 784-790
251 Stringer EM, Kaseba C, Levy J , et al. A randomized trial of the intrauterine contraceptive device vs hormonal contraception in women who are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 197 (2) e1-e8
252 Richardson BA, Morrison CS, Sekadde-Kigondu C , et al. Effect of intrauterine device use on cervical shedding of HIV-1 DNA. AIDS 1999; 13 (15) 2091-2097
253 Sinei SK, Morrison CS, Sekadde-Kigondu C, Allen M, Kokonya D. Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women. Lancet 1998; 351 (9111) 1238-1241
254 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Fact Sheet: New HIV Infections in the United States, Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/docs/2012/HIV-Infections-2007-2010.pdf . Accessed January 20, 2013; December 2012
255 Oliva G, Rienks J, McDermid M. What high-risk women are telling us about access to primary and reproductive health care and HIV prevention services. AIDS Educ Prev 1999; 11 (6) 513-524
256 Badell ML, Lathrop E, Haddad LB, Goedken P, Nguyen ML, Cwiak CA. Reproductive healthcare needs and desires in a cohort of HIV-positive women. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2012; 2012: 107878
257 Samuel M, Taylor C, Brady M, McDonald C, Poulton M, Tenant-Flowers M. Awareness of HIV post-exposure prophylaxis after sexual exposure and emergency hormonal contraception in HIV-positive women. Int J STD AIDS 2008; 19 (1) 14-15
258 Boonstra H. Meeting the sexual and reproductive health needs of people living with HIV. Issues Brief (Alan Guttmacher Inst) 2006; (6) 1-4
259 Morrison CS, Cates Jr W. Preventing unintended pregnancy and HIV transmission: dual protection or dual dilemma?. Sex Transm Dis 2007; 34 (11) 873-875
260 Singh S, Darroch JE. Adolescent pregnancy and childbearing: levels and trends in developed countries. Fam Plann Perspect 2000; 32 (1) 14-23
261 Jones RK, Darroch JE, Henshaw SK. Patterns in the socioeconomic characteristics of women obtaining abortions in 2000-2001. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2002; 34 (5) 226-235
262 Furstenberg FF. Destinies of the Disadvantaged: The Politics of Teen Childbearing. New York, NY: Russell Sage; 2007
263 Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. The Contraceptive Choice Project. Available at: http://www.choiceproject.wustl.edu/ . Accessed January 26, 2013
264 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Women's Preventive Services: Required Health Plan Coverage Guidelines, Available at: http://www.hrsa.gov/womensguidelines/ . Accessed January 26, 2013
265 Guiahi M, McNulty M, Garbe G, Edwards S, Kenton K. Changing depot medroxyprogesterone acetate access at a faith-based institution. Contraception 2011; 84 (3) 280-284
266 Rubin SE, Grumet S, Prine L. Hospital religious affiliation and emergency contraceptive prescribing practices. Am J Public Health 2006; 96 (8) 1398-1401
267 Parisi SM, Zikovich S, Chuang CH, Sobota M, Nothnagle M, Schwarz EB. Primary care physicians' perceptions of rates of unintended pregnancy. Contraception 2012; 86 (1) 48-54
268 Lohr PA, Schwarz EB, Gladstein JE, Nelson AL. Provision of contraceptive counseling by internal medicine residents. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2009; 18 (1) 127-131
269 Akers AY, Gold MA, Borrero S, Santucci A, Schwarz EB. Providers' perspectives on challenges to contraceptive counseling in primary care settings. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2010; 19 (6) 1163-1170
270 Schreiber CA, Harwood BJ, Switzer GE, Creinin MD, Reeves MF, Ness RB. Training and attitudes about contraceptive management across primary care specialties: a survey of graduating residents. Contraception 2006; 73 (6) 618-622
271 Isaacs JN, Creinin MD. Miscommunication between healthcare providers and patients may result in unplanned pregnancies. Contraception 2003; 68 (5) 373-376
272 Lee JK, Parisi SM, Akers AY, Borrero S, Schwarz EB. The impact of contraceptive counseling in primary care on contraceptive use. J Gen Intern Med 2011; 26 (7) 731-736
273 Homco JB, Peipert JF, Secura GM, Lewis VA, Allsworth JE. Reasons for ineffective pre-pregnancy contraception use in patients seeking abortion services. Contraception 2009; 80 (6) 569-574