Keywords orthopaedics - residents' training - survey - cadaver laboratory
Introduction
Surgical simulation is a well-established technique that has been developed and used
for decades to train residents in surgery including, in the last years, Orthopaedic
surgery.[1 ]
[2 ] The classic surgical training that Orthopaedics residents undergo during their residencies
includes exposure to procedures, the use of data and log books to quantify their surgical
experience, and personal feedback from senior colleagues. This classic approach is
often very subjective, not always valid, and subject to errors if we compare it to
relatively new approaches that include cadaver laboratories, animal/synthetic models,
and more recently virtual reality. Residents in Orthopaedic surgery should be trained
and evaluated with more objective tools on standard surgical procedures to allow their
progression toward a high level of competence that needs to be quantified. Quality
remains the main focus of Orthopaedic residents' training with mutual benefit for
both residents and patients.[2 ]
Surgical simulation can be divided into cadaver laboratories, animal/synthetic models,
and virtual reality.[3 ] Synthetic specimens are currently used for the training of future surgeons with
the advantage of being highly standardized.[4 ]
[5 ] Animal models are realistic and generally low cost, while virtual reality and computer-based
simulations are highly uniformed with low running costs, but not available for all
surgical procedures at the moment.[6 ]
Cadaver sessions are an essential part of surgical training and reputed to be the
best available substitute for live surgery nowadays. Arthroscopy and arthroplasty
are commonly performed on cadavers allowing and facilitating experience on surgical
exposures and procedures. It allows the trainee to have direct and real feedback while
developing anatomical awareness of different structures and their manipulation. Moreover,
the major part of complex procedures including joint replacements cannot be adequately
reproduced by means of other techniques including virtual simulation that is not available
as yet for certain surgical procedures such as pedicle screw placement in spine surgery.[7 ] There are also few limitations to the use of cadaver laboratories including specimen
availability and storing and management costs of the training facilities. For this
reason, despite cadaver laboratories are considered the gold standard[7 ] on other forms of simulation in Orthopaedic surgery training, it is pivotal to evaluate
the circumstances in which cadaver training will provide the highest benefit to the
trainee considering the resources available.
The purpose of this study is to provide basic information on the availability and
current use of cadaver laboratories in the education of Orthopaedic residents and
trainees and to determine the interest for the implementation of this type of training.
Methods
All orthopaedic residents and trainees who attended a cadaver laboratory organized
by SIGASCOT (Italian Society of the Knee, Arthroscopy, Sports Traumatology, Cartilage
and Orthopaedic Technology) between 2013 and 2016 were asked to complete a survey
on the availability and current use of cadaver laboratories in the education of Orthopaedic
residents and trainees.
An online questionnaire was built using SurveyMonkey (Portland, Oregon, United Sates),
a free, open source software survey tool on the web. The survey was sent via e-mail
to 102 Orthopaedic residents and trainees on April 12, 2017. All the invitees received
an e-mail shortly afterward containing a brief explanation of the purpose of the survey
and were asked to click on a link that would lead them to the appropriate version
of the survey. The survey required ∼5 to 8 minutes to complete. The survey needed
to be brief to maximize the response rate. The survey was closed on April 25, 2017.
The questions and responses applicable to this part of the study are included in [Table 1 ].
Table 1
Questions asked and possible responses
Questions
Possible responses
1.
In which year of residency are you right now?
PGY1
PGY2
PGY3
PGY4
PGY5
Already graduated from residency
Please specify your age:
2.
What kind of resources do you mostly use in your Orthopaedic education? (maximum two
choices)
Journals
Textbooks
Interned-based learning
Courses (bone models)
Cadaver labs
Other (please specify)
3.
How many cadaver laboratories did you attended in your life?
0
1
2
3
4
5
>5
4.
Which anatomical district was the cadaver laboratory focusing on?
Upper limb (please specify joint)
Lower limb (please specify joint)
5.
How beneficial did you find practicing on the cadaveric specimen?
Not beneficial at all
Slightly beneficial
Very beneficial
Extremely beneficial
6.
How beneficial did you find practicing on the cadaveric specimen to become familiar
with basic arthroscopic instruments or specific surgical instruments?
Not beneficial at all
Slightly beneficial
Very beneficial
Extremely beneficial
7.
How beneficial did you find practicing on the cadaveric specimen to understand a specific
surgical technique?
Not beneficial at all
Slightly beneficial
Very beneficial
Extremely beneficial
8.
How beneficial did you find practicing on the cadaveric specimen to become familiar
with normal surgical anatomy?
Not beneficial at all
Slightly beneficial
Very beneficial
Extremely beneficial
9.
Did cadaver laboratories increase your confidence, rapidity, and efficiency during
OR cases?
Not beneficial at all
Slightly beneficial
Very beneficial
Extremely beneficial
10.
Did cadaver laboratories increase your ability to participate more actively to OR
cases and did they decrease the incidence of damage to normal structures during OR
cases?
Not beneficial at all
Slightly beneficial
Very beneficial
Extremely beneficial
Abbreviations: OR, operating room; PGY, postgraduate year.
We collected results electronically and anonymously. All data were analyzed using
Microsoft Excel. All responses are presented as counts, percentages, or means.
Results
Thirty-eight out of 102 Orthopaedics and traumatology residents and trainees (37.2%)
completed the survey and were included in this analysis. The demographic data and
postgraduate levels of the participants included in the study are summarized in [Table 2 ]. The resources that participants mostly use for their orthopaedics and traumatology
education are based on scientific journals (59.5%), conferences (45.9%), cadaver laboratories
and Internet-based learning (35.1%), textbooks (24.3%), and bone model courses (5.45%)
([Fig. 1 ]).
Fig. 1 Mostly used educational resources.
Table 2
Gender and year in training of respondents
Frequency (%)
Gender
N = 38
Male
33 (86.8)
Female
5 (13.2)
Year in training
N = 38
PGY1
0 (0)
PGY2
0 (0)
PGY3
0 (0)
PGY4
2 (5.2)
PGY5
5 (13.2)
AGFR
31 (81.6)
Abbreviations: AGFR, already graduated from residency; PGY, postgraduate year.
The totality of the trainees already attended at least one cadaver laboratory before
the one included in this study and most of them (45.9%) attended more than five sessions.
Eighteen trainees (18/38; 44.3%) attended a cadaver laboratory focused on lower limb
surgery (knee or foot and ankle or hip), whereas 20 (20/38; 52.7%) on upper limb surgery
(shoulder or elbow or wrist).
[Table 3 ] summarizes the perception of benefits that trainees had in regards to skills laboratory
sessions attended. Twenty participants (55.7%) perceived skills laboratory sessions
as extremely beneficial to the understanding and becoming familiar with the normal
surgical anatomy; moreover, 16 (45.7%) participants considered the cadaver laboratory
extremely beneficial to the understanding of a specific surgical technique (both arthroscopic
and open surgery) and very beneficial (44.4%) to become confident with arthroscopic
or other specific surgical instruments. Practicing on the cadaveric specimens was
perceived as very to extremely beneficial in 80.6% of cases (29/36) overall.
Table 3
Perceived benefits of skills laboratory sessions
Not beneficial
N (%)
Slightly beneficial
N (%)
Very beneficial
N (%)
Extremely beneficial
N (%)
Practicing on the cadaveric specimen
0 (0)
7 (19.4)
14 (38.9)
15 (41.7)
Familiarity with basic arthroscopic instruments or specific surgical instruments
0 (0)
7 (19.4)
16 (44.4)
13 (36.1)
To understand a specific surgical technique
0 (0)
6 (17.1)
13 (37.1)
16 (45.7)
Familiarity with normal surgical anatomy
0 (0)
5 (13.9)
11 (30.6)
20 (55.7)
Note: (1), (2), (4), N = 36; (3), N = 35.
Skills laboratory sessions were perceived by the majority of respondents as being
beneficial to the operating room (OR) experience ([Table 4 ]). Over 60% of participants perceived cadaver laboratory to be very to extremely
beneficial to increase confidence and speed in the OR and more than a half of them
considered skills laboratory sessions to be very to extremely beneficial to increase
participation and decrease the occurrence of damages in the real surgical activity
([Table 4 ]). No significant differences in trainees' responses were noticed in regards to the
year in training.
Table 4
Perceived benefits of skills laboratory sessions to the OR experience
Not beneficial
N (%)
Slightly beneficial
N (%)
Very beneficial
N (%)
Extremely beneficial
N (%)
Confidence, speed, and rapidity in OR
1 (2.9)
12 (34.3)
15 (42.9)
7 (20)
Participation and decrease of incidence of damage in OR
1 (2.8)
14 (38.9)
14 (38.9)
7 (19.4)
Abbreviation: OR, operating room.
Note: (1), N = 35; (2), N = 36.
Discussion
This study was performed in collaboration with SIGASCOT. Aiming to identify the challenges
that Orthopaedics and traumatology residents and junior Orthopaedics and traumatology
surgeons face in Italy, as regards to their training, this survey stands as a pioneering
study with a consistent participation rate.
There is mounting evidence that the learning curve for both Orthopaedics residents
and trainees can be safely advanced outside of the OR by existing simulation technology,
with the possibility of an associated decrease in intraoperative technical errors
and thus a reduction in patient morbidity.[2 ] Many studies demonstrate the constructiveness and validate the simulations.[4 ]
[6 ]
[8 ] For instance, in Orthopaedic surgery, studies involving cadaver-based simulations
of carpal tunnel surgery have shown the possibility to distinguish between the performances
of residents with different experience levels.[9 ] Residents subjectively valued the cadaver laboratory sessions as an additional and
better tool with respect to other resources in acquiring specific surgical skills.[10 ] The survey demonstrated the cadaver laboratory sessions was a well-known instrument
for residents and trainees as demonstrated by all of them having attended at least
one previous cadaver session with a high percentage of trainees (45.9%) having been
involved in more than five.
The persons enrolled in our study perceived the cadaver session to be of value for
learning and practicing the basics of arthroscopy, revising surgical anatomy, and
they considered the skills practiced in the laboratory to be transferable to the OR
through increased confidence, speed, and efficiency and participation. If it is true
that laboratory practicing translates to more efficient performance in the OR, then
patients also stand to benefit through decreased anesthesia and OR time and likely
through decreased risk of iatrogenic injury.
The opportunity for repetitive practice in arthroscopic skills over the course of
an Orthopaedic residency is appealing, as it has been shown that procedural skills
are not retained without repetitive exposure, suggesting that repetition and multiple
training episodes are preferable.[8 ] Previous surveys developed by medical schools and teaching faculties involved in
training programs also suggest numerous exposures are needed for trainees to gain
proficiency in common Orthopaedic arthroscopic procedures.[11 ] A significant learning curve exists with exposure to new arthroscopic procedures,
even for practicing surgeons, suggesting that repetitive practice is essential for
residents where all aspects of arthroscopy are new.[12 ] A skill laboratory is a way to enable residents to practice surgical skills without
the time constraints associated with the OR.
The skills-based resident training programs, which have recently become an upcoming
trend throughout the world, aims at increasing residents' surgical technique and skill
by means of the use of plastic models, simulators, and cadavers. Such laboratories
are believed to increase the familiarity of the residents with surgical equipment,
procedures, and techniques at low risk and costs.[11 ]
There is literature to suggest that simulation training can be transferred to increase
competency and skills in the OR. In a 2008 study on the effect of laboratory-based
simulation on resident ability to perform knee diagnostic arthroscopy, Howells et
al demonstrated improved skills in trainees that underwent repetitive instruction
using a bench-top knee simulator.[8 ] Vitale et al surveyed more than 2,400 members of the American Academy of Orthopaedic
Surgeons and found that practice on cadaveric specimens ranked third in importance
in regards to learning arthroscopic rotator cuff repair technique.[13 ] In addition, skills assessment systems are being developed for use in simulated
learning situations.[14 ] Our survey results showed that the skills laboratory was highly appreciated by our
trainees in learning both open and arthroscopic techniques. Substantial benefit was
noted in becoming confident with equipment, instruments, procedures, anatomy, and
especially with practicing the three-dimensional aspect of arthroscopy. Our residents
felt that skills laboratory sessions resulted in increased confidence, efficiency,
and participation in the OR.
The low response rate is a limitation of this study, although higher compared with
other published studies. Only 38 (37.2%) of the 102 orthopaedic residents and trainees
invited to participate to the survey responded. However, a survey of both Orthopaedic
program directors and residents regarding arthroscopic training in the United States'
residency programs had response rates of 15.9 and 11.1%, respectively.[15 ] Another study in which Orthopaedic program directors and residents were surveyed
regarding their attitude toward resident work hours had response rates of 56 and 30%,
respectively.[16 ] Moreover, our sample size was small and the data available from our study are limited
and not fully manageable in terms of detailed statistical analysis. Small sample size
may limit the accuracy required to detect differences between different postgraduate
year levels.
In conclusion, Orthopaedic residents and trainees have found the addition of a cadaver
laboratory for teaching surgical skills to be of significant benefit to both their
overall education and surgical skills training.
