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DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1638595
Health and Biomedical Informatics: Opportunities and Challenges for a Twenty-First Century Profession and its Education
Correspondence to
Publication History
Publication Date:
07 March 2018 (online)
Summary
Objectives Characterize the health and biomedical informatics workforce, its professionalization, and its education.
MethodsLiterature review and analysis.
Results Although the value of health information technology is increasingly well-documented, there are still barriers to its widespread adoption around the world. One of those barriers is a well-defined and competent workforce for developing, evaluating, and implementing systems. There are plenty of opportunities in health and biomedical informatics, yet there also is still much that we do not know about this workforce and its education.
Conclusions Continued efforts must be made to characterize and understand the optimal organization and education of this workforce.
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References
- 1 Chaudhry B, Wang J, Wu S, Maglione M, Mojica W, Roth E. et al. Systematic review: impact of health information technology on quality, efficiency, and costs of medical care. Ann Intern Med 2006; 144: 742-52.
- 2 Garg AX, Adhikari NK, McDonald H, Rosas-Arellano MP, Devereaux PJ, Beyene J. et al. Effects of computerized clinical decision support systems on practitioner performance and patient outcomes: a systematic review. JAMA 2005; 293: 1223-38.
- 3 Hersh WR, Hickam DH, Severance SM, Dana TL, Krages KP, Helfand M. Diagnosis, access, and outcomes: update of a systematic review on telemedicine services. J Telemed Telecare 2006; 12 (Suppl. 02) 3-31.
- 4 Chantler C, Clarke T, Granger R. Information technology in the English National Health Service. JAMA 2006; 296: 2255-8.
- 5 Alvarez R. Wouldn’t it be Loverly? Putting the Pygmalion Effect to Work in Modernizing Health Care. Healthcare Information Management & Communications Canada April, 2007; 21 (02) 6-7 http://www.healthcareimc.com/bcovers/PDFS/Vol_XXI_2/6_Alvarez.pdf
- 6 Brailer DJ. The Decade of Health Information Technology: Delivering Consumer-centric and Information-Rich Health Care. Department of Health & Human Services; Washington, DC: 2004. http://www.hhs.gov/healthit/documents/hitframework.pdf.
- 7 Blumenthal D, Glaser JP. Information technology comes to medicine. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 2527-34.
- 8 Payne PR, Johnson SB, Starren JB, Tilson HH, Dowdy D. Breaking the translational barriers: the value of integrating biomedical informatics and translational research. J Investig Med 2005; 53: 192-200.
- 9 Zerhouni EA. Translational research: moving discovery to practice. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2007; 81: 126-8.
- 10 Baxevanis AD, Ouellette BFF. Bioinformatics: A Practical Guide to the Analysis of Genes and Proteins. Third Edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley- Interscience; 2005
- 11 Poon EG, Jha AK, Christino M, Honour MM, Fernandopulle R, Middleton B. Assessing the level of healthcare information technology adoption in the United States: a snapshot. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak 2006; 06: 1 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6947/6/1.
- 12 Hersh W. Health care information technology: progress and barriers. JAMA 2004; 292: 2273-4.
- 13 Poon EG, Blumenthal D, Jaggi T, Honour MM, Bates DW, Kaushal R. Overcoming barriers to adopting and implementing computerized physician order entry systems in U.S. hospitals. Health Aff 2004; 23: 184-90.
- 14 Anonymous. Building the Work Force for Health Information Transformation. 2006. American Health Information Management Association and American Medical Informatics Association; Chicago, IL and Bethesda, MD: http://www.ahima.org/emerging_issues/Workforce_web.pdf
- 15 Hersh WR. Who are the informaticians? What we know and should know. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2006; 13: 166-70.
- 16 Perlin JB, Gelinas LS. Electronic Health Records Workgroup Recommendations. 2008. American Health Information Community; Washington, DC: http://www.hhs.gov/healthit/documents/m20080115/09-ehr_recs_ltr.html.
- 17 Han YY, Carcillo JA, Venkataraman ST, Clark RS, Watson RS, Nguyen TC. et al. Unexpected increased mortality after implementation of a commercially sold computerized physician order entry system. Pediatrics 2005; 116: 1506-12.
- 18 Phibbs CS, Milstein A, Delbanco SD, Bates DW. No proven link between CPOE and mortality. Pediatrics. 2005 http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/eletters/116/6/1506.
- 19 Sittig DF, Ash JS, Zhang J, Osheroff JA, Shabot MM. Lessons from “unexpected increased mortality after implementation of a commercially sold computerized physician order entry system”. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 797-801.
- 20 DelBeccaro MA, Jeffries HE, Eisenberg MA, Harry ED. Computerized provider order entry implementation: no association with increased mortality rates in an intensive care unit. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 290-5.
- 21 Longhurst C, Sharek P, Hahn J, Sullivan J, Classen D. Perceived increase in mortality after process and policy changes implemented with computerized physician order entry. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 1450-1.
- 22 Jacobs BR, Brilli RJ, Hart KW. Perceived increase in mortality after process and policy changes implemented with computerized physician order entry. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 1451-2.
- 23 Rosenbloom ST, Harrell Jr FE, Lehmann CU, Schneider JH, Spooner SA, Johnson KB. Perceived increase in mortality after process and policy changes implemented with computerized physician order entry. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 1452-5.
- 24 Ash JS, Stavri PZ, Dykstra R, Fournier L. Implementing computerized physician order entry: the importance of special people. Int J Med Inform 2003; 69: 235-50.
- 25 Versel N. Shortage of Health-IT Workers Is Limiting Progress. Digital Healthcare & Productivity. com. August 28, 2007. http://www.digitalhcp.com/hitw/newsletters/2007/08/28/imia-who/.
- 26 Rowland C. Hospitals’ move to e-files spurs a labor shortage, Boston Globe. Boston, MA: May 14, 2007. http://www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2007/05/14/hospitals_move_to_e_files_spurs_a_labor_shortage/.
- 27 McCormack J. Short on support: Too few in health care IT work force. Am Med News. July 16, 2007. http://www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2007/07/16/bisa0716.htm.
- 28 Scherrer CS. Reference librarians’ perceptions of the issues they face as academic health information professionals. J Med Libr Assoc 2004; 92: 226-32.
- 29 Petrinic T, Urquhart C. The education and training needs of health librarians the generalist versus specialist dilemma. Health Info Libr J 2007; 24: 167-76.
- 30 Anonymous. A Vision of the e-HIM Future. American Health Information Management Association; Chicago, IL: 2003. http://library.ahima.org/xpedio/groups/public/documents/ahima/bok1_020477.pdf.
- 31 Leep C, Brown C, Long A. Research Brief: Putting Training on Track. Public Health Informatics Institute; Decatur, GA: 2004. http://www.phii.org/resources/doc/Training.pdf.
- 32 Monegain B. Healthcare IT: is it a breed apart?, Healthcare IT News. September, 2004. 4. http://www.healthcareitnews.com/story.cms?id=1522.
- 33 Sable JH, Hales JW, Bopp KD. Medical informatics in healthcare organizations: a survey of healthcare information managers. Proceedings of the AMIA 2000 Annual Symposium. 2000. Los Angeles, CA: Hanley & Belfus; 745-8.
- 34 Eyster KM. Career counseling: 101+ things you can do with a degree in biology. Adv Physiol Educ 2007; 31: 323-8.
- 35 Roberts J. Developing health informatics as a recognised professional domain supporting clinical and health management activity. World Hosp Health Serv 2006; 42 (04) 38-40.
- 36 Joyub R. The Professionalisation of Health Informatics in the United Kingdom. UK Health Informatics Today. Spring 2004; 42: 1-24 http://www.bmis.org/ebmit/2004_42_spring.pdf.
- 37 Anonymous. Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) User Guide. US Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics; Washington, DC: 2004. http://www.bls.gov/soc/socguide.htm.
- 38 Arbuckle DR. Standard Occupational Classification Revision for 2010; Notice. Federal Register; Washington, DC: 2006: 28536-28538 http://www.bls.gov/soc/soc_may06.pdf.
- 39 DalPoz MR. et al. Counting health workers: definitions, data, methods and global results, in Background Paper for the World Health Report 2006. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2006. http://www.who.int/hrh/documents/counting_health_workers.pdf.
- 40 Hersher BS, Hodges LB. Career Success in Healthcare Information Technology. Chicago, IL: Healthcare Information Management Systems Society; 2004
- 41 Eardley T. NHS Informatics Workforce Survey. ASSIST; London, England: 2006. http://www.bcs.org/upload/pdf/finalreport_20061120102537.pdf.
- 42 Gabler J. 2003 Integrated Delivery System IT Budget and Staffing Study Results. Gartner Corp; Stamford, CT: 2003
- 43 Wing P. et al. Data for Decisions: the HIM Workforce and Workplace 2002 Member Survey. 2003. American Health Information Management Association; Chicago, IL: http://library.ahima.org/xpedio/groups/public/documents/ahima/bok1_018947.pdf.
- 44 Dohm A, Shniper L. Occupational employment projections to 2016. Monthly Labor Review 2007; 130 (11) 87-125 http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2007/11/art5full.pdf.
- 45 Turner B, Nelson J. Oregon Health Care Workforce Needs Assessment 2006. WorkSource Oregon Employment Department; Salem, OR: 2006. http://www.qualityinfo.org/pubs/single/healthcare.pdf.
- 46 Anonymous. Nationwide Health Information Network (NHIN) Workforce Study. Altarum Institute; Ann Arbor, MI: 2007. http://aspe.hhs.gov/sp/reports/2007/NHIN/NHINReport.pdf.
- 47 Anonymous. 2006 HIMSS Compensation Survey. Healthcare Information Management Systems Society; Chicago, IL: 2007. http://www.himss.org/surveys/compensation/docs/CompensationSurvey2006.pdf.
- 48 Marietti C, Kirby J, Bennet S. What Are Healthcare IT Professionals Worth?. A Look at Healthcare IT Salaries. Healthcare Informatics; New York, NY: 2007
- 49 Anonymous. 2006 Salary Study. American Health Information Management Association; Chicago, IL: 2006. http://www.ahima.org/membership/member_profile_data.asp.
- 50 Knaup P, Frey W, Haux R, Leven FJ. Medical informatics specialists: what are their job profiles? Results of a study on the first 1024 medical informatics graduates of the Universities of Heidelberg and Heilbronn. Methods Inf Med 2003; 42: 578-87.
- 51 Covvey HD, Zitner D, Bernstein R. Pointing the Way: Competencies and Curricula in Health Informatics. University of Waterloo; Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: 2001. http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/health_info/health_docs/CurriculaMASTERDocumentVersion1Final.zip.
- 52 Hoffmann S, Ash J. A survey of academic and industry professionals regarding the preferred skillset of graduates of medical informatics programs. MEDINFO 2001 Proceedings of the Tenth World Congress on Medical Informatics. London, England: IOS Press; 2001: 1028-32.
- 53 Patton GA, Gardner RM. Medical informatics education: the University of Utah experience. J Am Med Inform Assoc 1999; 06: 457-65.
- 54 Safran C, Detmer DE. Computerized physician order entry systems and medication errors. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2005; 294: 179.
- 55 Conn J. In IT, it pays to think big survey puts metrics to medical informatics. Modern Physician 07: 18-9.
- 56 Leviss J, Kremsdorf R, Mohaideen MF. The CMIO a new leader for health systems. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2006; 13: 573-8.
- 57 Shaffer V, Lovelock J. Results of the 2006 Gartner- AMDIS Survey of CMIOs: Bridging Healthcare’s Transforming Waters. Gartner; Stamford, CT: 2007. http://www.gartner.com/DisplayDocument?ref=g_search&id=504632.
- 58 Hersher B. The essential skills for the Chief Medical Information Officer. Journal of Healthcare Information Management 2003; 17 (01) 10-1.
- 59 Anonymous. Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2001
- 60 Greiner AC, Knebel E. editors. Health Professions Education: A Bridge to Quality. National Academy Press; Washington, DC: 2003
- 61 Huang QR. Competencies for graduate curricula in health, medical and biomedical informatics: a framework. Health Informatics J 2007; 13: 89-103.
- 62 Hersh W, Williamson J. Educating 10,000 informaticians by 2010: the AMIA 10×10 program. Int J Med Inform 2007; 76: 377-82.
- 63 Nemko M. Ahead-of-the-Curve Careers, US News & World Report. December 19, 2007. http://www.usnews.com/articles/business/best-careers/2007/12/19/ahead-of-the-curve-careers.html.
Correspondence to
-
References
- 1 Chaudhry B, Wang J, Wu S, Maglione M, Mojica W, Roth E. et al. Systematic review: impact of health information technology on quality, efficiency, and costs of medical care. Ann Intern Med 2006; 144: 742-52.
- 2 Garg AX, Adhikari NK, McDonald H, Rosas-Arellano MP, Devereaux PJ, Beyene J. et al. Effects of computerized clinical decision support systems on practitioner performance and patient outcomes: a systematic review. JAMA 2005; 293: 1223-38.
- 3 Hersh WR, Hickam DH, Severance SM, Dana TL, Krages KP, Helfand M. Diagnosis, access, and outcomes: update of a systematic review on telemedicine services. J Telemed Telecare 2006; 12 (Suppl. 02) 3-31.
- 4 Chantler C, Clarke T, Granger R. Information technology in the English National Health Service. JAMA 2006; 296: 2255-8.
- 5 Alvarez R. Wouldn’t it be Loverly? Putting the Pygmalion Effect to Work in Modernizing Health Care. Healthcare Information Management & Communications Canada April, 2007; 21 (02) 6-7 http://www.healthcareimc.com/bcovers/PDFS/Vol_XXI_2/6_Alvarez.pdf
- 6 Brailer DJ. The Decade of Health Information Technology: Delivering Consumer-centric and Information-Rich Health Care. Department of Health & Human Services; Washington, DC: 2004. http://www.hhs.gov/healthit/documents/hitframework.pdf.
- 7 Blumenthal D, Glaser JP. Information technology comes to medicine. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 2527-34.
- 8 Payne PR, Johnson SB, Starren JB, Tilson HH, Dowdy D. Breaking the translational barriers: the value of integrating biomedical informatics and translational research. J Investig Med 2005; 53: 192-200.
- 9 Zerhouni EA. Translational research: moving discovery to practice. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2007; 81: 126-8.
- 10 Baxevanis AD, Ouellette BFF. Bioinformatics: A Practical Guide to the Analysis of Genes and Proteins. Third Edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley- Interscience; 2005
- 11 Poon EG, Jha AK, Christino M, Honour MM, Fernandopulle R, Middleton B. Assessing the level of healthcare information technology adoption in the United States: a snapshot. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak 2006; 06: 1 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6947/6/1.
- 12 Hersh W. Health care information technology: progress and barriers. JAMA 2004; 292: 2273-4.
- 13 Poon EG, Blumenthal D, Jaggi T, Honour MM, Bates DW, Kaushal R. Overcoming barriers to adopting and implementing computerized physician order entry systems in U.S. hospitals. Health Aff 2004; 23: 184-90.
- 14 Anonymous. Building the Work Force for Health Information Transformation. 2006. American Health Information Management Association and American Medical Informatics Association; Chicago, IL and Bethesda, MD: http://www.ahima.org/emerging_issues/Workforce_web.pdf
- 15 Hersh WR. Who are the informaticians? What we know and should know. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2006; 13: 166-70.
- 16 Perlin JB, Gelinas LS. Electronic Health Records Workgroup Recommendations. 2008. American Health Information Community; Washington, DC: http://www.hhs.gov/healthit/documents/m20080115/09-ehr_recs_ltr.html.
- 17 Han YY, Carcillo JA, Venkataraman ST, Clark RS, Watson RS, Nguyen TC. et al. Unexpected increased mortality after implementation of a commercially sold computerized physician order entry system. Pediatrics 2005; 116: 1506-12.
- 18 Phibbs CS, Milstein A, Delbanco SD, Bates DW. No proven link between CPOE and mortality. Pediatrics. 2005 http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/eletters/116/6/1506.
- 19 Sittig DF, Ash JS, Zhang J, Osheroff JA, Shabot MM. Lessons from “unexpected increased mortality after implementation of a commercially sold computerized physician order entry system”. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 797-801.
- 20 DelBeccaro MA, Jeffries HE, Eisenberg MA, Harry ED. Computerized provider order entry implementation: no association with increased mortality rates in an intensive care unit. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 290-5.
- 21 Longhurst C, Sharek P, Hahn J, Sullivan J, Classen D. Perceived increase in mortality after process and policy changes implemented with computerized physician order entry. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 1450-1.
- 22 Jacobs BR, Brilli RJ, Hart KW. Perceived increase in mortality after process and policy changes implemented with computerized physician order entry. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 1451-2.
- 23 Rosenbloom ST, Harrell Jr FE, Lehmann CU, Schneider JH, Spooner SA, Johnson KB. Perceived increase in mortality after process and policy changes implemented with computerized physician order entry. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 1452-5.
- 24 Ash JS, Stavri PZ, Dykstra R, Fournier L. Implementing computerized physician order entry: the importance of special people. Int J Med Inform 2003; 69: 235-50.
- 25 Versel N. Shortage of Health-IT Workers Is Limiting Progress. Digital Healthcare & Productivity. com. August 28, 2007. http://www.digitalhcp.com/hitw/newsletters/2007/08/28/imia-who/.
- 26 Rowland C. Hospitals’ move to e-files spurs a labor shortage, Boston Globe. Boston, MA: May 14, 2007. http://www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2007/05/14/hospitals_move_to_e_files_spurs_a_labor_shortage/.
- 27 McCormack J. Short on support: Too few in health care IT work force. Am Med News. July 16, 2007. http://www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2007/07/16/bisa0716.htm.
- 28 Scherrer CS. Reference librarians’ perceptions of the issues they face as academic health information professionals. J Med Libr Assoc 2004; 92: 226-32.
- 29 Petrinic T, Urquhart C. The education and training needs of health librarians the generalist versus specialist dilemma. Health Info Libr J 2007; 24: 167-76.
- 30 Anonymous. A Vision of the e-HIM Future. American Health Information Management Association; Chicago, IL: 2003. http://library.ahima.org/xpedio/groups/public/documents/ahima/bok1_020477.pdf.
- 31 Leep C, Brown C, Long A. Research Brief: Putting Training on Track. Public Health Informatics Institute; Decatur, GA: 2004. http://www.phii.org/resources/doc/Training.pdf.
- 32 Monegain B. Healthcare IT: is it a breed apart?, Healthcare IT News. September, 2004. 4. http://www.healthcareitnews.com/story.cms?id=1522.
- 33 Sable JH, Hales JW, Bopp KD. Medical informatics in healthcare organizations: a survey of healthcare information managers. Proceedings of the AMIA 2000 Annual Symposium. 2000. Los Angeles, CA: Hanley & Belfus; 745-8.
- 34 Eyster KM. Career counseling: 101+ things you can do with a degree in biology. Adv Physiol Educ 2007; 31: 323-8.
- 35 Roberts J. Developing health informatics as a recognised professional domain supporting clinical and health management activity. World Hosp Health Serv 2006; 42 (04) 38-40.
- 36 Joyub R. The Professionalisation of Health Informatics in the United Kingdom. UK Health Informatics Today. Spring 2004; 42: 1-24 http://www.bmis.org/ebmit/2004_42_spring.pdf.
- 37 Anonymous. Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) User Guide. US Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics; Washington, DC: 2004. http://www.bls.gov/soc/socguide.htm.
- 38 Arbuckle DR. Standard Occupational Classification Revision for 2010; Notice. Federal Register; Washington, DC: 2006: 28536-28538 http://www.bls.gov/soc/soc_may06.pdf.
- 39 DalPoz MR. et al. Counting health workers: definitions, data, methods and global results, in Background Paper for the World Health Report 2006. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: 2006. http://www.who.int/hrh/documents/counting_health_workers.pdf.
- 40 Hersher BS, Hodges LB. Career Success in Healthcare Information Technology. Chicago, IL: Healthcare Information Management Systems Society; 2004
- 41 Eardley T. NHS Informatics Workforce Survey. ASSIST; London, England: 2006. http://www.bcs.org/upload/pdf/finalreport_20061120102537.pdf.
- 42 Gabler J. 2003 Integrated Delivery System IT Budget and Staffing Study Results. Gartner Corp; Stamford, CT: 2003
- 43 Wing P. et al. Data for Decisions: the HIM Workforce and Workplace 2002 Member Survey. 2003. American Health Information Management Association; Chicago, IL: http://library.ahima.org/xpedio/groups/public/documents/ahima/bok1_018947.pdf.
- 44 Dohm A, Shniper L. Occupational employment projections to 2016. Monthly Labor Review 2007; 130 (11) 87-125 http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2007/11/art5full.pdf.
- 45 Turner B, Nelson J. Oregon Health Care Workforce Needs Assessment 2006. WorkSource Oregon Employment Department; Salem, OR: 2006. http://www.qualityinfo.org/pubs/single/healthcare.pdf.
- 46 Anonymous. Nationwide Health Information Network (NHIN) Workforce Study. Altarum Institute; Ann Arbor, MI: 2007. http://aspe.hhs.gov/sp/reports/2007/NHIN/NHINReport.pdf.
- 47 Anonymous. 2006 HIMSS Compensation Survey. Healthcare Information Management Systems Society; Chicago, IL: 2007. http://www.himss.org/surveys/compensation/docs/CompensationSurvey2006.pdf.
- 48 Marietti C, Kirby J, Bennet S. What Are Healthcare IT Professionals Worth?. A Look at Healthcare IT Salaries. Healthcare Informatics; New York, NY: 2007
- 49 Anonymous. 2006 Salary Study. American Health Information Management Association; Chicago, IL: 2006. http://www.ahima.org/membership/member_profile_data.asp.
- 50 Knaup P, Frey W, Haux R, Leven FJ. Medical informatics specialists: what are their job profiles? Results of a study on the first 1024 medical informatics graduates of the Universities of Heidelberg and Heilbronn. Methods Inf Med 2003; 42: 578-87.
- 51 Covvey HD, Zitner D, Bernstein R. Pointing the Way: Competencies and Curricula in Health Informatics. University of Waterloo; Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: 2001. http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/health_info/health_docs/CurriculaMASTERDocumentVersion1Final.zip.
- 52 Hoffmann S, Ash J. A survey of academic and industry professionals regarding the preferred skillset of graduates of medical informatics programs. MEDINFO 2001 Proceedings of the Tenth World Congress on Medical Informatics. London, England: IOS Press; 2001: 1028-32.
- 53 Patton GA, Gardner RM. Medical informatics education: the University of Utah experience. J Am Med Inform Assoc 1999; 06: 457-65.
- 54 Safran C, Detmer DE. Computerized physician order entry systems and medication errors. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2005; 294: 179.
- 55 Conn J. In IT, it pays to think big survey puts metrics to medical informatics. Modern Physician 07: 18-9.
- 56 Leviss J, Kremsdorf R, Mohaideen MF. The CMIO a new leader for health systems. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2006; 13: 573-8.
- 57 Shaffer V, Lovelock J. Results of the 2006 Gartner- AMDIS Survey of CMIOs: Bridging Healthcare’s Transforming Waters. Gartner; Stamford, CT: 2007. http://www.gartner.com/DisplayDocument?ref=g_search&id=504632.
- 58 Hersher B. The essential skills for the Chief Medical Information Officer. Journal of Healthcare Information Management 2003; 17 (01) 10-1.
- 59 Anonymous. Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2001
- 60 Greiner AC, Knebel E. editors. Health Professions Education: A Bridge to Quality. National Academy Press; Washington, DC: 2003
- 61 Huang QR. Competencies for graduate curricula in health, medical and biomedical informatics: a framework. Health Informatics J 2007; 13: 89-103.
- 62 Hersh W, Williamson J. Educating 10,000 informaticians by 2010: the AMIA 10×10 program. Int J Med Inform 2007; 76: 377-82.
- 63 Nemko M. Ahead-of-the-Curve Careers, US News & World Report. December 19, 2007. http://www.usnews.com/articles/business/best-careers/2007/12/19/ahead-of-the-curve-careers.html.