Keywords nasal ala - nasal reconstruction - composite graft - locoregional flap - facial reconstruction
The nasal ala is a paired structural subunit of the nose that is vital for maintaining
nasal symmetry and functionally important in the maintenance of the nasal valve. For
skin cancers of the ala, surgical resection is usually the first-line treatment. The
resulting defects at this unique location are often ill-suited for healing by secondary
intention, and typically cannot be closed primarily. Furthermore, the nasal ala creates
natural creases with the cheek, nasal sidewall, and nasal tip that need to be maintained.
Thus, repair of nasal ala defects can be a challenging operation for facial reconstructive
surgeons.
The nasal ala consists of three anatomically distinct layers—the external skin, the
internal nasal lining, and the fibrofatty middle portion. Typically, this middle portion
needs to be reconstructed with a nonanatomic graft as this unique tissue cannot be
replaced. Each layer is important in the reconstruction to integrate seamlessly with
the nose, prevent scar contracture, and maintain nasal patency.[1 ]
[2 ] When multiple layers are involved in a defect, the reconstruction requires combining
procedures to replace each layer, such as an interpolated cheek flap combined with
a free cartilage graft.[3 ] This results in multiple surgical donor sites and can require staged surgeries to
accomplish an acceptable outcome.
The technique of using autologous skin with underlying auricular conchal cartilage
(composite graft) for nasal reconstruction was first introduced by Konig in 1902.[4 ] Since its description, the auricular composite graft has been used in nasal reconstruction
for a variety of purposes. It has been proven effective in vestibular stenosis repair,
nasal valve insufficiency, external skin and cartilage reconstruction, and intranasal
lining repair in full thickness nasal defects.[5 ]
[6 ]
[7 ]
[8 ] Auricular composite grafting is an attractive option for nasal ala reconstruction
given that the conchal skin is a good color match and the conchal cartilage mimics
the natural contour of the ala.[9 ] Furthermore, the surgical technique can be performed quickly with relative ease
and leaves little donor site morbidity for the patient.[2 ]
[10 ]
There is extensive literature regarding the reconstructive options and their outcomes
for the external nasal skin, ranging from skin grafts to locoregional flaps;[3 ]
[11 ] however, defects at the nasal ala are unique in their impact on aesthetic outcome
and nasal function. They require different surgical approaches than other nasal subunits.
Currently, there are no comprehensive guidelines available that outline all available
options for each layer of the ala. The goal of this review is to provide a detailed
algorithm for partial and full-thickness nasal ala reconstruction. In addition, we
will describe our outcomes using the auricular composite graft, and help define its
role in this reconstructive algorithm.
Algorithm
Prior to developing an algorithm for nasal ala reconstruction, the alar defect must
first be categorized. We believe the most informative way to classify alar defects
is based on thickness and size. By definition, all defects will involve the alar skin,
and this represents the most superficial category of thickness. If the alar defect
includes much of the fibrous middle layer, the surgeon's reconstructive options must
consider harvesting cartilage. Finally, if the defect is full thickness, the surgeon
must reconstruct all three layers of the ala. Thus, defining the defect based on thickness
is closely related to the number of elements necessary to repair the wound. Within
each category of thickness, the size of the defect dictates the area of each reconstructive
element needed to repair the wound. Other aspects of the defect the surgeon must consider
include skin color, skin laxity, and amount of adjacent skin available for recruitment.
We acknowledge that gauging size guidelines for repairing soft tissue defects and
assessing aesthetic outcomes can be a subjective process. These assessments are open
to surgeon and patient interpretation, and we encourage all options to be considered
when deciding repair. As such, we advise that surgeons consider these sizing guidelines
as suggested values, rather than hardline mandates.
Skin Only
If the nasal ala defect is limited to the skin and the lower lateral cartilage is
intact, reconstruction can proceed without consideration for providing structural
support to the ala ([Fig. 1 ]). Alternatively, for deeper defects involving cartilage and nasal lining, the same
principles for reconstructing the skin layer will still be applied to those reconstruction
algorithms. Next, the surface area of the defect must be measured. Defects less than
or equal to 1 cm are good candidates for full-thickness skin grafting. Skin defects
larger than 1 cm occupy a significant percentage of the nasal ala subunit, and are
thus more suited for local soft tissue flaps capable of replacing the subunit, such
as the melolabial flap and the forehead flap.[12 ]
[13 ] Additionally, if the inferior limit of the skin defect involves the anterior alar
rim, skin grafting should be used with great caution as it can result in alar notching.[13 ] In regard to local flaps for skin defects, we caution against using the bilobed
flap and dorsal nasal flap for alar reconstruction due to their limited reach. For
these flaps, the tissue recruited is usually superior or lateral of the level of the
ala, which can lead to alar notching following retraction of the soft tissue. Furthermore,
these flaps have the potential to blunt the alar groove, an important aesthetic landmark,
which can be extremely challenging to fix secondarily.[13 ]
[14 ]
Fig. 1 Options for reconstruction of superficial depth alar defects. *Denotes the recommended
option.
Full thickness skin graft –Skin grafts are free grafts which have been completely separated from their blood
supply. As such, a prerequisite for skin grafting is a wound bed that is capable of
providing vascularity to the free skin graft. Avascular surfaces such as bone and
cartilage are incapable of supporting a skin graft.[15 ] Unlike skin defects of the nasal sidewall and dorsum, which has the potential to
expose high surface areas of upper lateral cartilage and nasal bone, skin defects
of the nasal ala only has the potential to expose the lower lateral cartilage. When
this occurs, there is usually well-vascularized subcutaneous tissue or perichondrium
that is exposed along with the lower lateral cartilage. Perhaps the greatest challenge
in achieving a good outcome with skin graft is color match. Potential candidates include
skin from the melolabial fold, forehead, and preauricular skin. McCluskey et al advocates
use of forehead skin due to similar degree of sun exposure and matching sebaceous
character to the alar skin.[13 ]
Melolabial flap –The melolabial flap is a pedicled transposition soft tissue flap which can be advanced
medially toward the nasal ala to repair superficial and full-thickness defects. Its
blood supply is derived from a random network of vessels from the distal facial and
angular arteries. The surgeon has the option of utilizing this flap as either a single-stage
or two-stage procedure for alar reconstruction. Both techniques involve raising the
flap from the ipsilateral melolabial cheek, with the deepest part of the crease marking
the inferior aspect of the donor flap so that it may be transposed toward the ala
with a superiorly based pedicle. Burget and Menick have initially encouraged elevating
a flap 1 mm larger than the alar defect.[16 ] More recent technique updates by Thornton et al have advocated for elevating a flap
that is the same size, or slightly smaller, so that inset at the ala can be under
tension to prevent pin-cushioning.[17 ] Fat on the distal end of the flap is thinned aggressively to prevent trap-door deformity.
For one-stage reconstruction, during inset of the flap, two nylon sutures can be placed
from the deep side of the flap into the nasal vestibular skin permanently to recreate
the alar crease. Lindsey's series of 105 cases of single-stage melolabial flap reconstruction
of superficial to full-thickness alar defects resulted in no complete flap failures,
with seven cases of partial necrosis at the distal end of the flap.[18 ] In contrast, in their review of alar defects reconstructed with melolabial flaps,
Driscoll and Baker cautions that single-stage use generally results in more revision
procedures to reconstruct the alar-facial sulcus.[3 ] If the flap is inset as a two-stage procedure, the pedicle of the melolabial flap
can be divided at 3 weeks during a second procedure, along with excision of the donor
bulge and closure of the superior melolabial fold.
Forehead flap –The paramedian forehead flap (PMFF) is an interpolated flap based on an axial blood
supply from the supratrochlear artery and perforators from the supraorbital artery.
This reliable axial blood supply has established the forehead flap as the gold standard
for nasal subunit reconstruction. Radiation therapy and smoking are factors that have
been shown to increase risk of complications and flap compromise following melolabial
flap.[19 ] For these patients, melolabial flaps should be used cautiously, and elevating the
flap with a wider pedicle of 2 cm will improve flap survival. Otherwise, the robust
axial blood supply of the forehead flap can provide a more reliable reconstructive
option.[19 ]
[20 ] Additionally, the PMFF is reliable for patients of all ages and can be performed
under anticoagulation.[21 ] The flap is elevated from the contralateral forehead to allow medial rotation at
a relaxed pivot point. The PMFF is capable of replacing the entire alar subunit ([Fig. 2 ]). If this is the case, the contralateral ala can be used as a template to guide
inset and sculpting of the distal flap. Because the forehead flap is an interpolated
flap, it is a two-stage procedure without an option for single-stage modification.
At 4 weeks, division and inset can occur following a reliable period of vascularization.
During division and inset, the flap can be further thinned, although this should be
done cautiously in smokers. In addition, the skin of the ala can be elevated as much
as 70% to allow further sculpting and placement of contouring sutures.[21 ]
Fig. 2 (A ) A patient with a large full-thickness defect of the ala which involves additional
nasal subunits. (B ) Reconstructed with a right forehead flap, island cheek advancement flap, inferior
turbinate flap, and free auricular conchal cartilage graft. Appearance at (C ) 2 months and (D ) 4 months after surgery.
Cartilage/Fibrous Layer
For nasal ala reconstruction, cartilage grafting can be used to restore the natural
convexity to the ala as well as provide support to the alar rim to prevent notching
and external nasal valve collapse ([Fig. 3 ]). In certain cases when the lower lateral cartilage remains anatomically intact
in a defect, a cartilage graft may still be needed to provide aesthetic support to
the ala. This is especially true if a bulky soft tissue flap is planned, such as a
melolabial flap or forehead flap. Similarly, although the alar rim contains no anatomic
cartilage, defects involving the rim may require nonanatomic grafting to prevent delayed
complications such as alar notching.[17 ] This is especially true if the defect involves a large portion of the alar rim,
such as when the widest portion of the defect occurs at the alar rim. If support to
the ala is not established during primary reconstruction, the soft tissue envelope
may collapse following scar contracture, making it difficult to regain the proper
support needed to prevent nasal airway obstruction.[14 ]
Fig. 3 Options for reconstruction of intermediate depth alar defects. *Denotes the recommended
option.
Free cartilage graft –In nasal reconstruction, cartilage grafts are most frequently harvested from the
nasal septum and auricle. For alar reconstruction, although septal cartilage can be
used to construct the alar framework, auricular cartilage is preferred. The natural
curvature of the conchal cartilage is well suited for recreating the convexity of
the ala. The cartilage from the concha cymba and concha cavum can be approached from
an anterior or posterior skin incision. Once harvested, the conchal cartilage can
be shaped and trimmed to match the native alar curvature, and can be thinned down
to 1 mm while maintaining its convexity. During placement of the graft, a small pocket
should be dissected at the alar facial sulcus to anchor the lateral aspect of the
graft to prevent prolapse into the vestibule. Driscoll and Baker reviewed 50 patients
with alar defects requiring free cartilage grafts and concluded that it produces good
aesthetic results when combined with additional reconstruction procedures. They report
a partial loss of skin flap in 6% of the patients when combined with a forehead flap
or melolabial flap, and partial loss of lining flap in 8% of the patients when combined
with intranasal lining repair.[3 ] Free cartilage grafting is surgically reliable, can be easily combined with other
locoregional flaps in alar reconstruction, and has been established as the gold standard
for skeletal support in intermediate and full-thickness alar defect reconstruction.
Composite cartilage graft –Auricular cartilage composite graft is a free tissue graft involving the conchal
cartilage and overlying skin. This one-stage procedure has the potential to repair
skin and cartilage defects during one surgery from one donor site. Like skin grafts,
the composite graft relies on the wound bed to provide vascularization to support
the tissue. Unlike skin grafts, the composite graft is much thicker, and only small
composite grafts can be sustained purely on imbibition of nutrients from the wound
bed.[2 ]
[8 ]
[22 ]
[23 ] The composite graft has three potential uses in alar reconstruction. First, for
intermediate depth defects where the internal lining is present, it can provide cartilage
support and external skin coverage. In this case, the composite graft is harvested
from the posterior concha so the skin side matches the convexity of the alar skin.
Second, for full-thickness defects, the auricular skin can replace the internal lining
while an additional vascularized flap, either a melolabial flap or forehead flap,
is used to sustain the graft and provide external skin coverage. In this case, the
composite graft is harvested from the anterior concha so the skin side matches the
concavity of the lining. Third, for full-thickness defects, both the anterior and
posterior conchal skin can be harvested and transferred as a three-layer graft.
The survival of the composite graft is dependent on multiple factors, but the most
important limitation is size.[24 ] Teltzrow et al analyzed outcomes of composite grafting for two-layer reconstruction
of the external nasal skin, and were able to achieve low rates of complication for
grafts ≥ 2 cm when gentle scarification and heparin treatments were applied postoperatively.[22 ] In their cohort of 91 patients receiving composite grafts for reconstruction of
the inner lining, Scheithauer et al found no graft necrosis for grafts ≤ 2 cm, and
suggests this is the critical cutoff size.[2 ] However, this cohort not only includes patients receiving composite grafts with
external locoregional flaps for full-thickness defects, but also includes patients
with no external skin defects, and defects not located at the ala. Thus, the true
outcomes for composite grafting to isolated alar defects are unclear. Comparatively,
Haas and Glogau suggests that for full-thickness defects, composite grafts larger
than 1.5 cm have failure rates > 50%.[25 ] Other technical modifications aimed to improve graft survival are designed to increase
the contact surface between the graft and tissue bed to maximize vascularization.
Avoiding thermocoagulation during surgery, strong counseling against smoking, and
protection from shearing trauma postoperatively will also help maintain adequate vascularization
to the graft and improve survival.[23 ]
[26 ]
[27 ]
[28 ] Harbison et al reviewed the literature on auricular composite grafting for nasal
reconstruction and concluded that interventions which may improve survival include
perioperative steroid therapy, applying cooling packs to the graft postoperatively,
and consideration for hyperbaric oxygen therapy in difficult cases.[24 ] However, without technical and postoperative modifications, auricular composite
grafting is likely to be reliable only for defects in the range of 1 to 1.5 cm based
on our review of the available literature.[14 ]
[24 ]
[29 ]
[30 ]
In our experience using composite grafts for partial and full-thickness ala defects,
the best results occurred when the graft was 1 cm or less. Very few patients in our
series with defects larger than 2 cm had good aesthetic outcomes. Thus, we advocate
the more conservative cutoff of 1 cm as the upper limit of alar defects suitable for
composite grafting. We made sure to support the composite graft adequately by advancing
external skin as well as vestibular lining when appropriate. We reiterate that our
suggestion of using the more conservative cutoff of 1 cm is a relative guideline based
on the best results we observed. This cutoff is designed to be a recommendation rather
than an exclusion criterion, and certainly does not preclude good outcomes beyond
the size guideline. Complications we encountered with larger composite grafts included
alar notching, external nasal valve collapse, hypertrophic scarring, and contour asymmetry.
These patients required multiple secondary procedures such as steroid injections and
laser treatments. Given these experiences, we recommend performing traditional auricular
cartilage grafting with concurrent skin coverage through a locoregional flap for larger
alar defects. Similar to skin grafting, composite grafting for small defects at the
alar rim can potentially cause alar notching. But unlike skin grafts, the cartilage
within the composite graft provides shape and structural support to the alar rim which
can resist some degree of retraction. Patients who have high arching alar rims at
baseline may be good candidates for composite grafting because slight alar notching
would not create significant asymmetry ([Fig. 4 ]). Additionally, it is worth considering harvesting an auricular composite graft
from the helical root for cases where there is exact contour match with the alar rim
defect. For smaller alar defects in patients with medical comorbidities who cannot
tolerate prolonged general anesthesia, such as American Society of Anesthesiologists
(ASA) class 4 or 5, the composite graft is a viable alternative with potential to
drastically cut down on operating time. Furthermore, it has the advantage of avoiding
a second surgery for division and inset, which is difficult to bypass when reconstructing
with melolabial and forehead flaps. Thus, the composite graft would also be a viable
alternative if the patient does not want an extensive reconstruction with a two-stage
procedure.
Fig. 4 (A ) A female with high arching alar rim at baseline with (B ) a 1-cm full-thickness defect of the ala involving the rim. (C ) Auricular composite graft used to reconstruct the defect with (D ) good aesthetic result at 2 months after surgery.
Lining
In reconstructing a full-thickness alar defect, one must incorporate lining repair
into the surgical algorithm ([Fig. 5 ]). A good option is a bipedicled vestibular advancement flap, based medially at the
junction of the anterior vestibular lining with the septum and laterally at the nasal
floor. After making a superior incision in the vestibular lining, this bipedicled
flap can be elevated and rotated inferiorly and carefully sewn into the inferior wound
edge of the defect. A skin graft may be necessary to replace the donor site to prevent
scar contracture leading to alar notching. Due to the delicate nature of this dissection,
the vestibular advancement flap can provide coverage for roughly 1 cm of nasal lining.[1 ]
[31 ] For larger lining defects, more involved pedicled mucosal flaps can be used. The
inferior turbinate can be elevated based on an anterior pedicle from branches of the
angular artery and turned toward the ala. After removal of the turbinate bone, the
mucosa can be peeled open to yield a flap of 1.7 cm in width and 2.8 cm in length.
Further reach can be gained by elevating the nasal floor and inferior meatal mucosa
in continuity with the turbinate. This flap does have the disadvantage of potentially
needing a secondary surgery for pedicle division.[1 ]
[32 ] Another option is an ipsilateral septal mucosal flap based medially and anteriorly
on the septal branch of the superior labial artery. This flap of mucoperichondrium
is elevated posteriorly to anteriorly along the septum before making superior and
inferior cuts to allow rotation of the flap laterally and anteriorly toward the ala.
Using this flap will require a secondary surgery for pedicle division to relieve nasal
airway obstruction. Additionally, there is donor-site morbidity related to crusting
which may worsen nasal airway obstruction.[1 ]
[17 ] Surgeons must also keep in mind the possibility of combining different intranasal
mucosal flaps to meet defect requirements.
Fig. 5 Options for reconstruction of full thickness alar defects. *Denotes the recommended
option.
For nonradiated patients, internal lining defects may also be repaired with titanium
mesh. Titanium mesh is a structural implant strong enough to resist cicatricial contracture
while permitting internal mucosalization. Zenga et al found that for patients with
full-thickness nasal defects treated with a vascularized skin flap covering a molded
titanium mesh, there was excellent implant incorporation and remucosalization. The
internal surface granulated through the titanium mesh and no dedicated lining repair
was necessary. This technique is mostly used for defects of the upper two-thirds of
the nose, but can be applied to mucosal defects extending inferiorly into the ala.
For full-thickness defects in nonradiated patients with a large mucosal deficit involving
the ala and other subunits, repair with a melolabial flap or forehead flap combined
with titanium mesh may be a good option.[1 ]
[33 ]
Conclusion
The nasal ala is functionally important for the nasal airway and is aesthetically
important for nasal symmetry. Defects of the nasal ala are challenging to reconstruct,
and each anatomic layer must be addressed during repair. Our algorithm outlines options
for reconstruction based on the depth of the defect and size of the defect. The auricular
composite graft is a versatile and valuable option that has multiple uses in nasal
alar reconstruction. It can provide one-stage reconstruction and decrease operating
time, but because graft survival is limited by size, it should be used judiciously
and reserved for small alar defects. Adjunct therapy such as steroid therapy, resurfacing,
and cooling may be necessary to improve graft survival. Regardless of the reconstruction
method, patients should be counseled that close follow-up for postoperative interventions
may be necessary to achieve the best aesthetic outcome.
