Keywords
birth injuries - muscle skeletal surgery - brachial plexus injuried child - brachial
plexus surgery
Introduction
Obstetric brachial plexus injuries (OBPIs) are a result of a traction injury during
delivery. The incidence of OBPI varies from 0.38 to 5.1 per 1,000 live births in various
countries.[1]
[2] The majority of OBPIs are mild, and spontaneous functional recovery will be present
in approximately 70% of children between 4 and 6 months of age. The remaining 30%
are left with functional deficits.[3]
The ultimate purpose of treatment in OBPIs is optimal restoration of arm and hand
function. Depending on the extent of the brachial plexus injury, either conservative
therapy (i.e., contracture preventive therapy) or nerve surgery in more severe lesions
may improve this upper extremity function. But after this initial treatment, a growing
child might again have recurring functional deficits, and anatomical changes may occur,
limiting functionality.[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10] One of these sequelae is limited external rotation of the shoulder, limiting hand
positioning to the mouth and head. This internal rotation contracture of the shoulder,
when limiting arm functionality, is an indication for secondary surgery (internal
contracture releases in combination with tendon transfers to promote active external
rotation).[11]
[12]
[13] Until now, most studies describe extensive surgical procedures or muscle release
procedures such as the posterior subscapular slide or an anterior subscapularis tendon
lengthening. However, shoulder balance between external and internal rotations can
be restored by only a subtle anterior coracohumeral release, thus leaving the subscapular
muscle intact. Since outcome in these heterogeneous brachial plexus injury patients
shows great variability on active range of motion outcome, we aimed to compare only
the passive gain in external rotation in two planes between an anterior coracohumeral
release and the classic posterior subscapular release.
Methods
All OBPI children at our institution who had an orthopaedic surgical intervention
for an internal rotation contracture of the shoulder were prospectively entered in
a database as of 1995.
This study involves all children who had an internal rotation contracture of the shoulder
between 1996 and 2010, for which only an internal rotation contracture release without
tendon transfers around the shoulder was performed. Two types of internal contracture
releases were performed in two successive time periods. The posterior release (subscapular
slide), as described by Carlioz and Brahimi,[14] was performed between 1996 and 2001. Due to recurrence of contractures, between
2001 and 2002, an extensive anterior release with subscapular tendon lengthening was
performed, and since the latter caused an external rotation contracture, the technique
was adopted. As of 2002, an anterior shoulder technique was performed using a 5-mm-long
skin incision, releasing the coracohumeral ligament. All surgeries were performed
by the senior author.
A total of 128 children underwent an internal contracture release during this period,
of which 26 had a posterior subscapular slide and 76 only an anterior coracohumeral
ligament release ([Table 1]). The remaining 26 patients were operated in the transition from the posterior to
anterior release and received a combination of a posterior and anterior release and
were therefore not analyzed in detail.
Table 1
Patient characteristics
|
Patient's characteristics
|
Anterior release, N = 76
|
Posterior release, N = 26
|
Combined posterior and anterior release, N = 26
|
|
Gender, male:female
|
36:40
|
17:9
|
12:14
|
|
Affected side, left:right
|
30:46
|
14:12
|
11:15
|
|
Median age (lower quartile; upper quartile)
|
4(3; 6)
|
3 (SD: 2; 4)
|
3 (2; 5)
|
|
Type of lesion
|
|
C5-C6
|
51
|
18
|
18
|
|
C5-C7
|
22
|
5
|
5
|
|
C5-C8
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
C5-T1
|
1
|
2
|
2
|
|
Unknown
|
1
|
–
|
–
|
Abbreviation: SD, standard deviation.
Surgical Techniques
All operations were performed under general anesthesia. After general anesthesia,
all shoulder range of motion values—internal and external rotation in both adduction
and abduction—were measured before and after the internal contracture release procedure
by the surgeon.
Posterior Subscapular Slide
In 26 children, a 3- to 4-cm-long incision along the inferior angle and the lateral
border of the scapula was used to expose the latissimus dorsi teres major interval,
in this interval, the inferior one-third of the medial scapular border was identified
and incised with diathermiccautery. The subscapularis was then released posteriorly
from the scapula with a raspatorium.
Anterior Coracohumeral Ligament Release
A deltopectoral incision of 5 to 7 mm was performed to expose the coracoid in 76 children.
After identification the coracoid, the conjoined tendon was moved laterally, a small
3-mm-wide hook was placed underneath the coracoacromial ligament, and the base of
the coracoid was visualized. Then an incision was made at the base of the coracoid,
with a no. 15 blade, releasing the coracohumeral ligament ([Fig. 1]) at the anterior capsule of the shoulder at a length of ∼3 mm.
Fig. 1 Anatomy of the shoulder (arrow indicates the coracohumeral ligament).
Statistical Analysis
A paired t-test was used to analyze the intraoperative gain in external rotation for both groups.
An unpaired t-test was used to compare the intraoperative gain in external rotation for both groups.
Results
Posterior Subscapular Release
Intraoperative passive external rotation increased with 64 degrees (95% confidence
interval [CI]: 54–74; p < 0.001) ([Table 2]) in adduction and 41 degrees (95% CI: 32–49; p < 0.001) in abduction ([Table 3]).
Table 2
Pre- and postincisional ER in adduction in both groups
|
Surgical technique
|
Preincisional ER in adduction, median (lower quartile; upper quartile)
|
Postincisional ER in adduction, median (lower quartile; upper quartile)
|
|
Posterior subscapular release
|
–5 (–28; 14)
|
60 (50; 70)
|
|
Anterior coracohumeral ligament release
|
–10 (–30; 0)
|
50 (40; 60)
|
Abbreviation: ER, external rotation.
Table 3
Pre- and postincisional ER in abduction in both groups
|
Surgical technique
|
Preincisional ER in abduction (median, lower quartile; upper quartile)
|
Postincisional ER in abduction (median, lower quartile; upper quartile)
|
|
Posterior subscapular release
|
40 (30;60)
|
88 (80;90)
|
|
Anterior coracohumeral ligament release
|
40 (30;45)
|
80 (75;80)
|
Abbreviation: ER, external rotation.
Anterior Coracohumeral Release
Intraoperative passive external rotation increased with 61 degrees (95% CI: 56–66;
p < 0.001) ([Table 2]) in adduction and with 42 degrees (95% CI: 39–45; p < 0.001) in abduction ([Table 3]).
Comparison between Both Groups
Comparison between the anterior coracohumeral release and the posterior subscapular
release showed that improvement in external rotation in both adduction (p = 0.08) and abduction (p = 0.17) were comparable in both groups.
Discussion
All patients gained sufficient external rotation after both the posterior subscapular
glide technique and the limited anterior coracohumeral ligament surgical internal
rotation contracture release procedures. The goal of both techniques is to enable
active muscle action around the shoulder joint to enable active external rotation,
thus allowing hand-to-mouth and hand-to-head movements. Soft tissue release techniques
can have side effects due to overbalancing the released movement of action, thus creating
an external rotation contracture, which also limits functionality due to obstructing
hand-to-belly movements. A release procedure is a delicate balancing procedure, allowing
functionality of the arm if performed correctly. Several methods of tendon lengthening
or treating a contracture exist. Most studies describe procedures including a posterior
subscapular sliding technique releasing the internal rotation contracture, which also
results in an increase in global function.[15] However, releasing the subscapular muscle from the ventral scapular blade can result
in early recurrence of the internal rotation contracture, as found by us and others.[16] Even more, this muscle sliding technique of the subscapular muscle from the scapula
might damage the subscapular muscle. Since the subscapular muscle is one of the prime
movers of the shoulder, this might have an effect on overall shoulder function. The
presence of recurrences and potential muscle damage urged us to start a different
contracture release technique. The technique originated from an open anterior subscapular
lengthening technique with resection of the coracoid process as described by Birch.[17] During these procedures, it was observed that during a stepwise release of the anterior
tissue with control of the range of motion, external rotation during each step of
this release showed an increase in the range of motion. The major influence on external
rotation was the release of the coracohumeral ligament while leaving the coracoid
process and the subscapular muscle intact. The coracohumeral ligament has been described
as a constraint in frozen shoulders, limiting external rotation. Another study described
an anterior capsular release while sparing the subscapular muscle. However, this study
included only a small group of patients (n = 14), and the release was performed in combination with a latissmus dorsi transfer,[18] which also has an effect on an internal rotation contracture. Thus results may have
been influenced by the detachment and subsequent transfer of the tendon. Our study
is in a larger group, and only the intraoperative effect of the release procedure
is described, which could not be influenced by the combined release and detachment
of other shoulder internal rotators such as the latissimus dorsi or teres major. Other
studies describing an arthroscopic anterior release combine this procedure with a
subscapular tenotomy. We believe that damage to the subscapular muscle interferes
with functionality of the shoulder since the subscapular muscle is one of the prime
movers of the shoulder, thus comprising not only internal rotation movement but also
overall shoulder function (i.e., abduction/elevation).[19]
[20]
The less invasive anterior release technique of the coracohumeral ligament is currently
still the preferred soft tissue release at our center, and we have not performed a
subscapular lengthening procedure since 2001. As mentioned in the Introduction section,
we did not describe postoperative follow-up since the aim of the study was to describe
a surgical technique.
