Background and Study Aims: Unexplained pancreatitis represents a diagnostic challenge. The aim of this study was to determine the diagnostic utility of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) with sphincter of Oddi manometry (SOM), bile analysis, and endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) in evaluating such patients.
Patients and Methods: Of 162 patients referred for evaluation of pancreatitis, 72 with a known cause were excluded. The remainder (n =90) was classified as having prior acute (n =24) or recurrent acute pancreatitis (n =66). Bile sampling and SOM were performed at the time of ERCP. EUS was used to assess for tumors and for chronic pancreatitis. Clinical outcomes were evaluated by questionnaire.
Results: ERCP was successful in 88/89 patients (99 %). Manometry was successful in 63/67 patients (94 %), and 56 patients underwent EUS. Findings were categorized into five distinct etiologies: sphincter of Oddi dysfunction (SOD) (n =28; 31 %), pancreas divisum (n =18; 20 %), biliary (n =18; 20 %), idiopathic (n =18; 20 %) and tumor-related (n =8; 9 %). Features of moderate or severe chronic pancreatitis by EUS and ERCP criteria were found in 18 patients (21 %); an additional nine patients had chronic pancreatitis by EUS criteria alone. EUS identified all the tumors. The condition was improved in 96 % of all patients undergoing endoscopic therapy.
Conclusion: An etiology was identified in the majority of patients with unexplained pancreatitis. SOD represented the most common finding. Moderate to severe chronic pancreatitis was found in over one-fifth of these patients. Bile analysis, SOM, and EUS are useful tools in the evaluation of unexplained acute pancreatitis.
References
1
Steinberg W, Tenner S.
Acute pancreatitis.
N Engl J Med.
1994;
330
1198-1210
2
Thomson S R, Hendry W S, McFarlane G A, Davidson A I.
Epidemiology and outcome of acute pancreatitis.
Br J Surg.
1987;
74
398-401
3
Venu R P, Geenen J E, Hogan W. et al .
Idiopathic recurrent pancreatitis. An approach to diagnosis and treatment.
Dig Dis Sci.
1989;
34
56-60
4 Soergel K H. Acute pancreatitis. In: Sleisenger MH, Fordtran JS, editors Gastrointestinal disease. 5th edn. Philadelphia; WB Saunders 1993: 1628-1651
5
Feller E R.
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiography in the diagnosis of unexplained pancreatitis.
Arch Intern Med.
1984;
144
1797-1799
6
Sherman S, Jamidar P, Reber H.
Idiopathic acute pancreatitis (IAP): endoscopic approach to diagnosis and therapy [abstract].
Am J Gastroenterol.
1993;
88
1541
7
Ros E, Navarro S, Bru C. et al .
Occult microlithiasis in ”idiopathic“ acute pancreatitis: prevention of relapses by cholecystectomy or ursodeoxycholic acid therapy.
Gastroenterology.
1991;
101
1701-1709
8
Lee S P, Nicholls J F, Park H Z.
Biliary sludge as a cause of acute pancreatitis.
N Engl J Med.
1992;
326
589-593
9
Legorreta A P, Silber J H, Costantino G N. et al .
Increased cholecystectomy rate after the introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy.
JAMA.
1993;
270
1429-1432
10
Escarce J J, Chen W, Schwartz J S.
Falling cholecystectomy thresholds since the introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy.
JAMA.
1995;
273
1581-1585
11
Lam C M, Murray F E, Cuschieri A.
Increased cholecystectomy rate after the introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy in Scotland.
Gut.
1996;
38
282-284
12
Hawes R H, Zaidi S.
Endoscopic ultrasonography of the pancreas.
Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am.
1995;
5
61-80
13
Dancygier H.
Endoscopic ultrasound in chronic pancreatitis.
Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am.
1995;
5
795-804
14 Rösch T, Classen M. Normal anatomy on endosonographic examination. In: Elder D, editor Gastroenterologic Endosonography. Stuttgart; Thieme 1992: 13-35
15
Lees W R.
Endosonographic ultrasonography of chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic pseudocysts.
Scand J Gastroenterol.
1986;
21 (Suppl. 123)
123-129
16
Natterman C, Goldschmidt A JW, Dancygier H.
Endosonography in chronic pancreatitis - a comparison between endoscopic retrograde pancreatography and endoscopic ultrasonography.
Endoscopy.
1993;
25
565-570
17
Wiersema M J, Hawes R H, Lehman G A. et al .
Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in patients with chronic abdominal pain of suspected pancreatic origin.
Endoscopy.
1993;
25
555-564
18
Axon A TR, Classen M, Cotton P B. et al .
Pancreatography in chronic pancreatitis: international definitions.
Gut.
1984;
25
1107-1112
19
Cotton P B, Lehman G, Vennes J. et al .
Endoscopic sphincterotomy, complications and their management: an attempt at consensus.
Gastrointest Endosc.
1991;
37
383-393
20
Cotton P B.
Outcomes of endoscopy procedures: struggling towards definition.
Gastrointest Endosc.
1994;
40
514-518
21
Toskes P P.
Approach to the patient with acute relapsing pancreatitis.
Gastrointest Dis Today.
1994;
3
8-15
22
Bank S, Wise L, Gersten M.
Risk factors in acute pancreatitis.
Am J Gastroenterol.
1983;
78
637-640
23
Cotton P B, Beales J SM.
Endoscopic pancreatography in management of relapsing acute pancreatitis.
Br Med J.
1974;
1
608-611
24
Katon R M, Bilbao M K, Eldemiller L R, Benson J A.
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the diagnosis and management of non-alcoholic pancreatitis.
Surg Gynecol Obstet.
1978;
147
333-338
25
Hamilton I, Bradley P, Lintott D J. et al .
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the investigations and management of patients after acute pancreatitis.
Br J Surg.
1982;
69
504-506
26
Cotton P B.
Congenital anomaly of pancreas divisum as cause of obstructive pain and pancreatitis.
Gut.
1980;
21
105-114
27
Rosch W, Koch H, Schaffner O, Demling L.
The clinical significance of the pancreas divisum.
Gastrointest Endosc.
1976;
22
206-207
28
Cooperman M, Ferrara J J, Carey L C. et al .
Idiopathic acute pancreatitis: the value of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.
Surgery.
1981;
90
666-670
29
Nash J A, Geenen J E, Hogan W J. et al .
The role of sphincter of Oddi manometry (SOM) and biliary microscopy in evaluating idiopathic recurrent pancreatitis (IRP) [abstract].
Gastroenterology.
1996;
110
31
30
Dancygier H, Classen M.
Endosonographic diagnosis of benign pancreatic and biliary lesions.
Scand J Gastroenterol.
1986;
21 (Suppl. 123)
119-122
31
Sakai K, Nasu T, Tanabe Y. et al .
Evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography for the diagnosis of choledocholithiasis.
Gastroenterology.
1991;
100
A338
32
Frederic N, Deltentre M, d’Hondt M. et al .
Comparative study of ultrasound and ERCP in the diagnosis of hepatic, biliary, and pancreatic disease. A prospective study based on a continuous series of 424 patients.
Eur J Radiol.
1983;
3
208-211
33
Tio T L, Tytgat G NJ, Cikot R JLM. et al .
Ampullopancreatic carcinoma: preoperative TNM classification with endosonography.
Radiology.
1990;
175
455-461
34
Barkun A N, Jones S.
Bowie J, et al. The assessment of ampullary tumors by endoscopic ultrasonography [abstract].
Gastrointest Endosc.
1990;
36
207
35
Buscail L, Escourrou J, Moreau J. et al .
Endoscopic ultrasonography in chronic pancreatitis: a comparative prospective study with conventional ultrasonography, computed tomagraphy, and ERCP.
Pancreas.
1995;
10
251-257
36
Catalano M F, Geenen J E, Schmalz M, Johnson G K.
Comparison of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) with ERCP and secretin test (ST) or pure pancreatic juice (PPJ) as diagnostic modalities in suspected chronic pancreatitis (CP).
Gastrointest Endosc.
1994;
40
A186
37
Amouyal G, Amouyal P, Lévy P. et al .
Value of endoscopic ultrasonography in the diagnosis of idiopathic acute pancreatitis [abstract].
Gastroenterol.
1994;
106
A283
38
Barkun A N, Jones S, Putnam W S. et al .
Endoscopic treatment of patients with pancreas divisum and pancreatitis.
Gastrointest Endosc.
1990;
36
A206-A207
39
Lehman G A, Sherman S, Nisi R, Hawes R H.
Pancreas divisum: results of minor papilla sphincterotomy.
Gastrointest Endosc.
1993;
39
1-8
40
Lans J I, Geenen J E, Johanson J F, Hogan W J.
Endoscopic therapy in patients with pancreas divisum and acute pancreatitis: a prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trial.
Gastrointest Endosc.
1992;
38
430-434
41
Goldberg P B, Long W B, Oleaga J A, Mackie J A.
Choledochocele as a cause of recurrent pancreatitis.
Gastroenterol.
1980;
78
1041-1045
42
Heikkinen E S, Salminen P M.
Congenital choledochal cyst opening into the intraduodenal part of the common bile duct and complicated by cystolithiasis and acute pancreatitis.
Acta Chir Scand.
1984;
150
183-185
43
Taylor R G, Auldist A W.
Choledochal cyst presenting as acute pancreatitis.
Aust NZ J Surg.
1985;
55
611-612
44
Greene F L, Brown J J, Rubinstein P, Anderson M C.
Choledochocele and recurrent pancreatitis.
Am J Surg.
1985;
149
306-309
45
Ballinger A B, Barnes E, Alstead E M, Fairclough P D.
Is intervention necessary after a first episode of acute idiopathic pancreatitis?.
Gut.
1996;
38
293-295
46
Gregor J C, Ponich T P, Detsky A S.
Should ERCP be routine after an episode of ”idiopathic“ pancreatitis? A cost-utility analysis.
Gastrointest Endosc.
1996;
44
118-123
47
Tio T L, Cheng J, Wijers O B. et al .
Endosonographic TNM staging of extrahepatic bile duct cancer: comparison with pathologic staging.
Gastroenterol.
1991;
100
1351-1361
48
Grimm H, Maydeo A, Soehendra N.
Endoluminal ultrasound for the diagnosis and staging of pancreatic cancer.
Baillière’s Clin Gastroenterol.
1990;
4
869-887
49
Palazzo L, Roseau G, Gayet B. et al .
Endosonographic ultrasonography in the diagnosis and staging of pancreatic adenocarcinoma.
Endoscopy.
1993;
25
143-150
50
Rösch T, Braig C, Gain T. et al .
Staging of pancreatic and ampullary carcinoma by endoscopic ultrasonography.
Gastroenterol.
1992;
102
188-199
51
Tio T L, Tytgat G N, Cikot R J. et al .
Ampullopancreatic carcinoma: preoperative classification with endosonography.
Radiology.
1990;
175
455-461
52
Vilmann P, Hancke S, Henriksen F W, Jacobsen G K.
Endosonographically guided fine needle aspiration of malignant lesions of the upper gastrointestinal tract.
Endoscopy.
1993;
25
523-527
53
Wiersema M J, Kochman M L, Cramer H M. et al .
Endosonography-guided real time fine-needle aspiration biospy.
Gastrointest Endosc.
1994;
40
700-707
54
Frossard J L, Sosa-Valencia L, Amouyal G. et al .
Usefulness of endoscopic ultrasonography in patients with “idiopathic” acute pancreatitis.
Am J Med.
2000;
109
196-200
55
Tarnasky P R, Hawes R H.
Endoscopic diagnosis and therapy of unexplained (idiopathic) acute pancreatitis.
Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am.
1998;
8
13-37
W. J. Coyle, M.D.
Division of Gastroenterology · Naval Medical Center
San Diego · CA 92134-3301 · USA
Fax: + 1-619-532-9620
Email: waltcoyle@aol.com