Leg Heating and Cooling Influences Running Stride Parameters but not Running Economy

Abstract

To evaluate the effect of temperature on running economy (RE) and stride parameters in 10 trained male runners (V·O_2peak 60.8 ± 6.8 ml · kg^-1 · min^-1), we used water immersion as a passive temperature manipulation to contrast localised pre-heating, pre-cooling, and thermoneutral interventions prior to running. Runners completed three 10-min treadmill runs at 70 % V·O_2peak following 40 min of randomised leg immersion in water at 21.0 °C (cold), 34.6 °C (thermoneutral), or 41.8 °C (hot). Treadmill runs were separated by 7 days. External respiratory gas exchange was measured for 30 s before and throughout the exercise and stride parameters were determined from video analysis in the sagittal plane. RE was not affected by prior heating or cooling with no difference in oxygen cost or energy expenditure between the temperature interventions (average V·O₂ 3rd - 10th min of exercise: C, 41.6 ± 3.4 ml · kg^-1 · min^-1; TN, 41.6 ± 3.0; H, 41.8 ± 3.5; p = 0.94). Exercise heart rate was affected by temperature (H > TN > C; p < 0.001). During minutes 3 - 5 of running the respiratory-exchange and minute ventilation/oxygen consumption ratios were greater in cold compared with thermoneutral (p < 0.05). Averaged over the full 10 min of exercise, stride length was shorter and stride frequency higher for the C trial compared to TN and H (p < 0.01). Leg temperature manipulation did not influence running economy despite changes in stride parameters that might indicate restricted muscle-tendon elasticity after pre-cooling. Larger changes in stride mechanics than those produced by the current temperature intervention are required to influence running economy.

Temperature - stride length - stride frequency - efficiency - energy expenditure

References

• 1 Abbott B C, Lowry J. Stress relaxation in muscle.  Proc R Soc Lond. 1956;  14 B 281-288
• 2 Bassett D R, Howley E T. Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;  32 70-84
• 3 Berg U, Ekblom B. Physical performance and peak aerobic power at different body temperatures.  J Appl Physiol. 1979;  46 885-889
• 4 Binzoni T, Ngo L, Hiltbrand E, Springett R, Delpy D. Non-standard O₂ consumption-temperature curves during rest and isometric exercise in human skeletal muscle.  Comp Biochem Physiol A. 2002;  132 27-32
• 5 Booth J, Marino F, Ward J J. Improved running performance in hot humid conditions following whole body pre-cooling.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;  29 943-949
• 6 Booth J, Wilsmore B R, Macdonald A D, Zeyl A, Mcghee S, Calvert D, Marino F E, Storlien L H, Taylor N AS. Whole body pre-cooling does not alter human muscle metabolism during sub-maximal exercise in the heat.  Eur J Appl Physiol. 2001;  84 587-590
• 7 Burnley M, Doust J H, Jones A M. Effects of prior heavy exercise, prior sprint exercise and passive warming on oxygen uptake kinetics during heavy exercise in humans.  Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002;  87 424-432
• 8 Cavanagh P R, Williams K R. The effect of stride length variation on oxygen uptake during distance running.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;  14 30-35
• 9 Cotter J D, Sleivert G G, Roberts W S, Febbraio M A. Effect of pre-cooling, with and without thigh cooling, on strain and endurance exercise performance in the heat.  Comp Biochem Physiol A. 2001;  128 667-677
• 10 Davison T F. The effect of temperature on oxidative phosphorylation in isolated flight muscle sarcosomes.  Comp Biochem Physiol. 1971;  38 B 21-34
• 11 Durnin J VGA, Womersley J. Body fat assessed from total body density and its estimation from skinfold thickness: measurements on 481 men and women aged from 16 to 72 years.  Br J Sports Med. 1974;  32 77
• 12 Ferretti G, Binzoni T, Hulo N, Kayser B, Thomet J-M, Cerretelli P. Kinetics of oxygen consumption during maximal exercise at different muscle temperatures.  Respir Physiol. 1995;  102 261-268
• 13 Ferguson R A, Ball D, Sargeant A J. Effect of muscle temperature on rate of oxygen uptake during exercise in humans at different contraction frequencies.  J Expt Biol. 2002;  205 981-987
• 14 Gregson W A, Drust B, Batterham A, Cable N T. The effects of pre-warming on the metabolic and thermoregulatory responses to prolonged submaximal exercise in moderate ambient temperatures.  Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002;  86 526-533
• 15 Hopkins W G. Measures of reliability in sports medicine and science.  Sports Med. 2000;  30 1-15
• 16 Jones A M. Running economy is negatively related to sit-and-reach test performance in international-standard distance runners.  Int J Sports Med. 2002;  23 40-43
• 17 Karamanidis K, Arampatzis A, Bruggemann G-P. Symmetry and reproducibility of kinematic parameters during various running techniques.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;  35 1009-1016
• 18 Kay D, Taafe D R, Marino F E. Whole-body pre-cooling and heat storage during self-paced cycling performance in warm humid conditions.  J Sports Sci. 1999;  17 937-944
• 19 Lee D T, Haymes E M. Exercise duration and thermoregulatory responses after whole body precooling.  J Appl Physiol. 1995;  79 1971-1976
• 20 Lehmann J F, Masock A J, Warren C G, Kablanski J N. Effect of therapeutic temperatures on tendon extensibility.  Arch Phys Med Rehab. 1970;  51 481-487
• 21 Magnusson S P, Aagaard P, Larsson B, Kjaer M. Passive energy absorption by human muscle-tendon unit is unaffected by increase in intramuscular temperature.  J Appl Physiol. 2000;  88 1215-1220
• 22 Marino F E. Methods, advantages, and limitations of body cooling for exercise performance.  Br J Sports Med. 2002;  36 89-94
• 23 Morgan D W, Martin P E, Krahenbuhl G S, Baldini F D. Variability in running economy and mechanics in trained male runners.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991;  23 378-383
• 24 Nicol C, Komi P V, Marconnet P. Effects of marathon fatigue on running kinematics and economy.  Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1991;  1 195-204
• 25 Pereira M A, Freedson P S, Maliszewski A F. Intra-individual variation during inclined steady state treadmill running.  Res Q Exerc Sport. 1994;  65 184-188
• 26 Peronnet F, Massicotte D. Table of non-protein respiratory quotient: an update.  Can J Sport Sci. 1991;  16 23-29
• 27 Rademaker A CHJ. Human locomotory performance effects of fatigue and temperature in relation to muscle fibre type variability. University of Amsterdam; PhD Thesis 1997
• 28 Saunders P U, Pyne D B, Telford R D, Hawley J A. Factors affecting running economy in trained distance runners.  Sports Med. 2004;  34 465-485
• 29 Sleivert G G, Cotter J D, Roberts W S, Febbraio M A. The influence of whole-body vs torso pre-cooling on physiological strain and performance of high-intensity exercise in the heat.  Comp Biochem Physiol A. 2001;  128 657-666
• 30 Sproule J. The influence of either no fluid or carbohydrate-electrolyte fluid ingestion and the environment (thermoneutral versus hot and humid) on running economy after prolonged high intensity exercise.  Eur J Appl Physiol. 1998;  77 536-542
• 31 Strickler T, Malone T, Garrett W E. The effects of passive warming on muscle injury.  Am J Sports Med. 1990;  18 141-145
• 32 Warren C G, Lehmann J F, Kablanski J N. Heat and stretch procedures: An evaluation using rat tail tendon.  Arch Phys Med Rehab. 1976;  57 122-126
• 33 Willis W T, Jackman M R. Mitochondrial function during heavy exercise.  Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994;  26 1347-1354
• 34 Wright V, Johns R J. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of joint stiffness in normal subjects and in patients with connective tissue disease.  Ann Rheum Dis. 1961;  20 36-46
• 35 Woo S LY, Lee T Q, Gomez M A, Sato S, Field F P. Temperature dependent behaviour of the canine medial collateral ligament.  J Biomech Eng. 1987;  109 68-71