Introduction
Although thyroid cancer is less common in pediatrics than adult patients, the incidence
of pediatric thyroid cancer has increased gradually in Indonesia as well as throughout
the world. Thyroid cancer has become the fifth most common cancer in children age
of 0–14 years and the most common cancer in adolescents and young adults. Cancer screening
tests for early detection of thyroid cancer have been implicated as the impact of
its rise in adult thyroid cancer. However, because children and adolescents generally
do not undergo such test, genetic or environmental factors have been suggested as
possible causes of the increased incidence of pediatric thyroid cancer.[1],[2]
The clinicopathological characteristics and outcomes of thyroid cancers in adults
were recently published. Pediatric thyroid cancers tend to be at more advanced stages
at the time of diagnosis and have a higher frequency of recurrences than adulthood
thyroid cancers. However, it remains unclear whether the pathology diagnosis and long-term
outcomes differ between children and adolescent thyroid cancer patients.[3]
Furthermore, despite their advanced pathological presentations, pediatric patients
have better prognosis and significantly lower mortality rates than adult ones. This
finding reveals that, even in similarly advanced stage at the time of diagnosis, long-term
outcome and prognosis may differ between pediatrics and adult patients. As the prognostic
implications of the pathology according to age at diagnosis are unknown, no age-related
optimal-clinical practice guidelines for the treatment and monitoring of thyroid cancer
in pediatric patients are available. The comparison between pediatrics and adult patients
with thyroid cancer in this study may help to develop age-related optimal management
and follow-up guidelines in the future.[4]
We investigated changes in the clinic pathological presentation and long-term outcomes
of pediatric thyroid cancer according to age at diagnosis during the year of 2009–2011
and compare the clinicopathological predictors of recurrence-free survival (RFS) between
pediatrics and adult patients with differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC).
Materials and Methods
Materials
The medical records of 144 children and young adult patients (<40 years of age) with
thyroid cancer diagnosed during January 2007 and December 2011 at Hasan Sadikin Hospital
were retrospectively reviewed. We also obtained data from cancer registry, hospital
charts, operation reports, and records from other cancer-related division, such nuclear
and external radiation department using a standardized form. The data contained entries
of demographic and staging data, treatment, complications, radioiodine therapy treatment,
and patient status.
From those, 43 of participants were below 21 years of age and categorized as pediatric
patients. The pediatric age should be limited to 21 years as from pragmatic point
of view, our centers may transfer pediatric patients between 18 and 21 years of age
to adult care and manage those children under pediatric guidelines until transition
period has been completed.[5] 101 (one hundred one) young adult patients with thyroid cancer were recorded. Eight
patients with intermediate histopathology such as tall cell and insular carcinoma
were excluded from the analysis. Clinicopathological characteristics that include
age, sex, primary tumor size, multimodality therapy, extrathyroidal extension (ETE),
lymph node (LN), and/or distant metastasis at diagnosis were investigated. The long-term
outcomes of 43 pediatric patients' data were assessed and compared to those of 101
of young adults. All patients had been followed up for 60 months after multimodality
treatment. This analysis was using patients from the Oncology, Head and Neck Surgery
Department, Hasan Sadikin General Hospital, and the patients' list was obtained from
individual review of hospital archives, registry, and databases. Data base was differentiated
patients' treatment diagnosed from January 1, 2007, to December 31, 2011.
In addition, specific categories were included to specify disease progression. A clinical
measurement was taken before or at the time of surgery if the pathologic measurement
was not available. Distant metastases were identified most commonly by plain chest
X-ray or whole-body scan. All patients should at least have a 1-year follow-up from
initial treatment.
Methods
Disease progression was chosen as the end point of analysis due to many patients already
had metastatic disease at diagnosis. We consider disease progression if there was
local recurrence recognized within thyroid bed or regional LNs after a complete removal,
progression in the thyroid bed or regional nodes after incomplete surgical resection,
and the development or progression of distant metastatic disease (lung and bone).
Independent variables were age, ETE of primary tumor into surrounding tissue, primary
tumor size, number of nodules, regional LN involvement, presence of distant metastases,
the technique of initial surgery, the use of RAI, and histopathology type were assessed
for their influence on disease progression.
Initial thyroid surgery was divided into three groups: (1) lobectomy and isthmectomy,
(2) total thyroidectomy, and (3) total thyroidectomy + comprehensive neck dissection.
Morbidity during treatment was assessed by determining the association of significant
wound complications, permanent recurrent nerve paralysis, permanent hypocalcemia with
the extent of thyroid surgery, or nodal dissection. Wound complication included serous
hemorrhage or hematoma (requiring exploration), infection, pneumothorax, and requirement
for tracheostomy. Permanent hypoparathyroidism was presumed if there was a postoperative
need for calcium supplements and/or Vitamin D replacement for >6 months after surgery
and continued until the last follow-up. Permanent recurrent nerve paralysis was defined
by change in voice and/or indirect laryngoscope evidence of vocal cord paralysis that
lasted at least 6 months after the primary thyroid surgery. This included cases of
operations that sacrificed the recurrent nerve. Temporary recurrent nerve injury or
hypoparathyroidism resolved within 6 months of surgery. The pediatric patient data
were then compared to those of 101 young adult patients with differentiated thyroid
carcinoma.
Results
The average age at diagnosis of thyroid cancer was 18 years old (interquartile range
[IQR] 8.8). The pathological finding papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) was 91% in
pediatrics versus 66% in young adult. The average rate of size was 4.65 cm (IQR 1.10),
and multifocality was found in 9 patients (21%). Metastasis in children was found
in 5 patients (12%) while there were 10 patients (10%) in young adults. Total thyroidectomy
was the most common procedure to treat DTC in both groups (n = 37, 86% and n = 88, 87%). The report of operative injury to laryngeal nerve revealed
in one pediatric patient (2%) and none in young adult patient. Hypocalcaemia was common
after surgery and was the most common complication in pediatric group (n = 9.18%), presumably due to more fragile anatomy structure in children's laryngeal
nerves than ones in the adult [Table 1]. Some traction caused spasm to anterior thyroid artery and temporary hypocalcemia
due to parathyroid gland failure. Addition of RAI treatment seemed not to have correlation
with recurrence for both groups.
Table 1
Comparison of clinicopathological and treatment characteristics of children and young
adults with differentiated thyroid carcinoma
|
Characteristic
|
Children (n=43)
|
Young adult (n=101)
|
Total (n=144)
|
p
|
|
*Independent t-test; §Wilcoxon rank-sum test; $Chi-square test; #Fisher’s exact test. IQR – Interquartile
range; SD – Standard deviation; RND – Radical neck dissection; FTC – Follicular thyroid
cancer; PTC – Papillary thyroid carcinoma; RAI – Radioactive iodine; FTCV – Follicular
Thyroid Carcinoma Variant; PTCV: Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma Variant
|
|
Gender, frequency (%)
|
|
Female
|
29 (67)
|
88 (87)
|
117 (81)
|
0.006$
|
|
Male
|
14 (33)
|
13 (13)
|
27 (19)
|
|
|
Histopathology type, frequency (%)
|
|
FTC
|
0
|
7 (7)
|
7 (5)
|
0.012#
|
|
FTCV
|
0
|
1 (1)
|
1 (1)
|
|
|
PTC
|
39(91)
|
67 (66)
|
106 (74)
|
|
|
PTCV
|
4 (9)
|
26 (26)
|
30 (21)
|
|
|
Nodule
|
|
Number, frequency (%)
|
|
Single
|
34 (79)
|
86 (85)
|
120 (83)
|
0.370$
|
|
Multiple
|
9 (21)
|
15 (15)
|
24 (17)
|
|
|
Size (cm)
|
|
For single, median (IQR)
|
4.65 (1.10)
|
4.30 (1.48)
|
4.30 (1.23)
|
0.815§
|
|
For multiple, mean (SD)
|
|
First
|
4.64 (1.22)
|
5.33 (2.24)
|
5.08 (1.92)
|
0.407*
|
|
Second
|
4.13 (0.71)
|
4.75 (1.49)
|
4.52 (1.27)
|
0.189*
|
|
Metastasis, frequency (%)
|
|
Yes
|
5 (12)
|
10 (10)
|
15 (10)
|
0.770#
|
|
No
|
38 (88)
|
91 (90)
|
129 (90)
|
|
|
Surgical procedure, frequency (%)
|
|
Isthmo-lobectomy
|
3 (7)
|
5 (5)
|
8 (5)
|
0.919#
|
|
Total thyroidectomy
|
37 (86)
|
88 (87)
|
125 (87)
|
|
|
Total thyroidectomy with RND
|
3 (7)
|
8 (8)
|
11 (8)
|
|
|
Injury of Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve, frequency (%)
|
|
Yes
|
1 (2)
|
0
|
1 (1)
|
0.299#
|
|
No
|
42 (98)
|
101 (100)
|
143 (99)
|
|
|
Hypocalcemia after surgery, frequency (%)
|
|
Yes
|
8 (19)
|
1 (1)
|
9 (6)
|
<0.001#
|
|
No
|
35 (81)
|
100 (99)
|
135 (94)
|
|
|
RAI treatment, frequency (%)
|
|
Yes
|
39 (91)
|
88 (87)
|
127 (88)
|
0.544$
|
|
No
|
4 (9)
|
13 (13)
|
17 (12)
|
|
Bivariate analysis found that gender, histopathology type, surgical procedure, and
metastasis have correlation with RFS [Table 2]. Histopathological feature and laryngeal nerve injury were not included in the multivariable
analysis with Cox proportional hazard models because of zero number cells. The Kaplan–Meier
curve [Figure 1] and hazard ratio (HR) only used in 136 participants, excluded 8 young adult participants.
Compared histopathology features were only PTC (Papillary Thyroid Cancer) and PTCV
(Papillary Thyroid Cancer Variant).
Table 2
Table 2: Cox model prediction of recurrence in pediatric age groups and young adult
groups
|
Variable
|
Crude HR (95% CI)
|
P
|
Adjusted HR (95% CI)
|
|
|
Model 1
|
P
|
Model 2
|
P
|
|
HR – Hazard ratio; CI – Confidence interval; RAI – Radioactive iodine
|
|
Age group
|
3.88 (1.38-10.91)
|
0.010
|
7.91 (2.11-29.67)
|
0.002
|
7.11 (2.10-24.04)
|
0.002
|
|
Gender
|
0.71 (0.20-2.51)
|
0.594
|
1.14 (0.28-4.65)
|
0.858
|
-
|
-
|
|
Histopathology type
|
2.13 (0.48-9.42)
|
0.321
|
0.70 (0.13-3.64)
|
0.668
|
-
|
-
|
|
Number of nodule
|
1.18 (0.33-4.17)
|
0.802
|
0.98 (0.24-4.05)
|
0.978
|
-
|
-
|
|
Isthmo-lobectomy
|
22.62 (6.88-74.36)
|
<0.001
|
98.25 (17.40-554.77)
|
<0.001
|
87.56 (18.34-418.13)
|
<0.001
|
|
Metastasis
|
4.63 (1.58-13.55)
|
0.005
|
8.69 (2.42-31.18)
|
0.001
|
8.08 (2.45-26.71)
|
0.001
|
|
Hypocalcemia
|
7.81 (2.47-24.69)
|
<0.001
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
|
RAI treatment
|
0.18 (0.06-0.56)
|
0.003
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Figure 1: Kaplan–Meir curves of disease-free recurrent in pediatric age groups and
young adult age groups
Discussion
Previous guidelines for the management of thyroid cancers were geared toward adults.
Compared to thyroid neoplasm in adults, those in the pediatric population exhibit
differences in pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and long-term outcomes.[6],[7] Furthermore, therapy that may be recommended for an adult may not be appropriate
for children who are at low risk for death but at higher risk for long-term harm caused
by overly aggressive treatment. For these reasons, unique guidelines for children
and adolescent with thyroid tumors are needed. Several studies have compared the clinical
presentation and outcomes for children diagnosed with DTC <10–15 years of age with
that patients of 10–18 years of age. The data are unclear as to whether younger age
indicates greater risk for extensive disease of recurrence. All studies are retrospective
and most include only small numbers of children of the above age. Overall studies
in which 25%–30% of the cohort are of younger age have shown that young age is associated
with persistence disease or recurrence although studies with fewer young children
have not confirmed this.[8]
In this study, there was a significant difference between children group and young
adult one. Recurrence risk in thyroid cancer for pediatric patients was higher in
young adult group compared to children with HR 3.88 at confidence interval of 95%.
This study is consistent with the research of Lee et al.[8]
In addition, there was a specific characteristic in pediatric thyroid cancer in children
for the presence of multiple nodules. Lee et al. study revealed a close relationship between multiple nodules with the recurrence
risk. In our study, multiple nodules were dominantly found in children group patient,
rather than in adult case, accounted for 21% and 15%, respectively. However, this
was not statistically proven as significant factors to regulate the recurrence in
the future.[8]
Other important role, apart from the age of patients, the presence of metastasis in
LNs is important to be observed. If the neck LN is present, the possibility of locoregional
recurrence will be more prevalent. This is confirmed with Nobuyuki et al. study in 2009.[9]
Furthermore, treatment regimens vary which may impact outcomes. For example, surgeons
may less aggressive in LN dissection in younger children, and this factor, rather
than age, may impact recurrence rates. In our studies, we found that younger age was
associated with an increased risk of recurrent nodal disease and lung metastases after
adjustment for other risk factors.
There are uncertain factors to clinically predict the recurrence. Many of practitioners
tend to avoid conducting radical operation on children's thyroid carcinomas. However,
operation of only one side of thyroid (lobectomy with or without isthmus) that contains
relatively small size tumor will be against by the group of surgeons who apply radical
operation of thyroidectomy in thyroid cancer, even conducting prophylactic central
LN dissection for tumor which size extend 1 cm as discussed by Chen et al.[10]
This is understandable as in our research, LN metastasis is an accurate predictor
factor to expect recurrence. Clinical research also agrees to importantly pursue the
aggressiveness predictor factor on children's thyroid cancers. Studies by Conzo et al. support this assumption.[11]
Nixon and Barczynski recommended routine central node dissection to prevent long-term
recurrence and decrease postoperative thyroglobulin levels, citing the high risk of
cervical LN metastasis.[12],[13] In contrast, Giordano et al. summarized that this procedure increases the risk of postoperative complications
such as hypothyroidism or recurrent laryngeal nerve injury, without any demonstrable
long-term survival benefits.[14],[15]
Result from our research also shows that the neck LN metastasis presentation is the
strong predictor factor to indicate recurrence. Therefore, we support the aggressive
therapy. However, we feel that this should be supported by molecular biology study
to seek predictor that can be used as reference for the aggressive therapy application.
Compared to adults, DTC in childhood is characterized by higher prevalence of gene
rearrangements and lower frequency of point mutations in proto-oncogenes. Recent molecular
studies have shown that BRAF mutation is the most common molecular abnormality in
adults (36%-83% of cases) while this is rare in children.[16]
In contrast to the adults' PTC, PTC on children's molecular pathogenesis occurs sporadically
in which 80% of them related to RET gene mutation, following the process of realignment
with other genes, i.e., H4 and Elei that formed oncogenes RET/PTC. These genes encode
proteins that play a role in the kinase tyrosine pathway in cells of the thyroid gland
that is the path of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). to date, there are at
least 11 different type of RET/PTC. All resulting from the fusion of tyrosine kinase
domain of the 5' portion of different genes. RET/PTC1 and RET/PTC3 are the most common
type, accounting for more than 90% of all re-arrangement. PTC that is caused by mutations
in RET/PTC1 is more common in the age group above 20 years with subtype classic PTC,
with tumors grow relatively slowly and occur sporadically, whereas mutations in RET/PTC3
are more common in the age group under 20 years old and have aggressive biological
characteristic usually as tall cell variant PTC and a history of radiation exposure
associated with the head and neck area as happened in Chernobyl and Nagasaki-Hiroshima.[17]
In general, the aggressiveness of a tumor is characterized by increasing proliferation
and the ability of tumor cells to migrate out of the primary tumor to the other organs.
This process is known as metastasis. At children and young adults PTC, allegedly increased
proliferation caused by gene mutations and realignment of RET/PTC that will activate
the MAPK pathway. RET/PTC, respectively, phosphorylate proteins that work in the MAPK
pathway, ranging from Ras, Raf, MEK, and ERK. The active ERK proteins undergo translocation
into the cell nucleus to activate the transcription factor that will stimulate the
transcription process by promoters of genes that play a role in the proliferation.[18]
The ability of tumor cells to migrate begins with the unchain of bonds with neighboring
cells and change in the cell skeleton or framework. Change in the framework of the
cell causes the cell to penetrate the extracellular matrix and induce the transcription
factors that alter epithelial cells into mesenchymal cells. This process is a key
to the progression of all the cancer cells derived from epithelial. Integrity between
epithelial structures with each other and between epithelial and basement membrane
is barrier to prevent the occurrence of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT). The
integrity of the cells is adhered by E-cadherin strong bound which forms the actin
framework of the cell. Loss of E-cadherin bonding among these cells will disrupt desmosomes
that maintain ties of inner filaments' order to prevent the cells, penetrating the
extracellular matrix.. Epithelial cells are transformed into mesenchymal cells which
have the ability to transcribe the factors that can degrade extracellular matrices
such as matrix metalloproteinase. Formed mesenchymal cells also have the ability to
stimulate synergy of protein signal that stimulates the formation of cancers' epithelial
cell such as epidermal growth factor, hepatocyte growth factor, and fibroblast growth
factor family, such as transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β).[18],[19]
On children and young adults' PTC, TGF-β RII role is suspected in reducing the expression
of E-cadherin. Excessive expression of TGF-β RII can be activated by TGF-β produced
by the thyroid tumor cells themselves or as product of other cells. The subsequent
activity of SMAD pathway leads to activation of transcription factors, such as SNAIL
that will stimulate E-cadherin gene promoter. The process that occurs is a corepressor
to the transcription so that the expression of E-cadherin decreased.[20]
It can be concluded that fundamental protein in the beginning of process is E-cadherin,
given proof that this protein expression changes will affect the expression of other
proteins. In other words, E-cadherin acts as a conductor in an orchestra, and the
orchestra is an EMT so that the expression of E-cadherin can represent EMT. If EMT
occurs, then tumor cells will be able to move to other organs, showing those tumor
cells are more aggressive. Hence, the aggressiveness of children and young adults'
PTC can be represented by EMT.
This theory needs further research. However, if this is relevant, then biology molecular
can be considered to determine therapy management on papillary thyroid cancer in children.
Conclusion
The risk of recurrent ratio of children to young adults is 3.88 (95% confidence interval
[CI] 1:38; 10.91) meaning that children are more at risk to have recurrence compared
to young adults. Similarly, after sex type, histopathology type, number of nodules,
surgical technique, and metastasis (model 2) controlling, the conclusion remains the
same (adjusted HR = 7.91, 95% CI 2.11, 29.67). DTC in children presents more aggressive
behavior than in young adults patients.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Kurnia Wahyudi MD., MSc staff of Clinical Epidemiology
and Biostatistics, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung, for providing
statistical analysis.
