PDF herunterladen
Diabetologie und Stoffwechsel 2023; 18(S 02): S136-S147
DOI: 10.1055/a-2075-9984
DDG-Praxisempfehlung

Therapie des Typ-1-Diabetes – Kurzfassung der S3-Leitlinie (AWMF-Registernummer: 057-013; 4. Auflage 2018)

Thomas Haak
1   Diabetes-Klinik Bad Mergentheim, Bad Mergentheim, Deutschland
,
Stefan Gölz
2   Diabetesschwerpunktpraxis Esslingen, Esslingen, Deutschland
,
Andreas Fritsche
3   Innere Medizin IV, Medizinische Klinik, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Deutschland
,
Martin Füchtenbusch
4   Diabeteszentrum am Marienplatz München, München, Deutschland
,
Thorsten Siegmund
5   Isarklinikum München, München, Deutschland
,
Elisabeth Schnellbächer
6   Birkenfeld, Deutschland
,
Harald H. Klein
7   Medizinische Universitätsklinik I – Allgemeine Innere Medizin, Endokrinologie und Diabetologie, Gastroenterologie und Hepatologie, Berufsgenossenschaftliches Universitätsklinikum Bergmannsheil, Bochum, Deutschland
,
Til Uebel
8   prima-diab Praxis Dres. Uebel/Nittka/Mayer/Merkle, Ittlingen, Deutschland
,
Diana Droßel
9   Eschweiler, Deutschland
› Institutsangaben
› Weitere Informationen
Auch verfügbar auf
    Lizenzen und Reprints
Aktualisierungshinweis

Die DDG-Praxisempfehlungen werden regelmäßig zur zweiten Jahreshälfte aktualisiert. Bitte beachten Sie, dass sich aufgrund der Überschneidung der Fristen für die Druckfassung dieser Praxisempfehlung und der Veröffentlichung der 5. Auflage der S3-Leitlinie Therapie des Typ-1-Diabetes im September 2023 die vorliegende Praxisempfehlung noch auf die Fassung aus dem Jahr 2018 bezieht. Die aktuelle Langfassung der S3-Leitlinie (09/2023) finden Sie unter: https://register.awmf.org/de/leitlinien/detail/057-013 und auf der DDG-Homepage.



Publikationsverlauf

Artikel online veröffentlicht:
30. Oktober 2023

© 2021. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Georg Thieme Verlag KG
Rüdigerstraße 14, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany

 

  • Literatur

  • 1 American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2017; 40 (Suppl. 01) S11-S24
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 2 Johnson DD, Palumbo PJ, Chu CP. Diabetic ketoacidosis in a community-based population. Mayo Clin Proc 1980; 55: 83-88 . EK III
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 3 Bottazzo GF, Florin-Christensen A, Doniach D. Islet-cell antibodies in diabetes mellitus with autoimmune polyendocrine deficiencies. Lancet 1974; 2: 1279-1283 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 4 Palmer JP, Asplin CM, Clemons P. et al Insulin antibodies in insulin-dependent diabetics before insulin treatment. Science 1983; 222: 1337-1339 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 5 Wiest-Ladenburger U, Hartmann R, Hartmann U. et al Combined analysis and single-step detection of GAD65 and IA2 autoantibodies in IDDM can replace the histochemical islet cell antibody test. Diabetes 1997; 46: 565-571 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 6 Bingley PJ, Bonifacio E, Mueller PW. Diabetes Antibody Standardization Program: first assay proficiency evaluation. Diabetes 2003; 52: 1128-1136 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 7 Törn C, Mueller PW, Schlosser M. et al Diabetes Antibody Standardization Program: evaluation of assays for autoantibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase and islet antigen-2. Diabetologia 2008; 51: 846-852 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 8 Schlosser M, Mueller PW, Torn C. et al Diabetes Antibody Standardization Program: evaluation of assays for insulin autoantibodies. Diabetologia 2010; 53: 2611-2620 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 9 Imagawa A, Hanafusa T, Miyagawa J. et al A novel subtype of type 1 diabetes mellitus characterized by a rapid onset and an absence of diabetes-related antibodies. Osaka IDDM Study Group. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 301-307 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 10 National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Type 1 diabetes in adults: diagnosis and management. 2015 EK IV
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 11 American Diabetes Association. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes – 2017. Diabetes Care 2017; 40: 01. EK IV
  • 12 DCCT Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 977-986 . EK Ib
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 13 Fanelli CG, Epifano L, Rambotti AM. et al Meticulous prevention of hypoglycemia normalizes the glycemic thresholds and magnitude of most of neuroendocrine responses to, symptoms of, and cognitive function during hypoglycemia in intensively treated patients with short-term IDDM. Diabetes 1993; 42: 1683-1689 . EK IIb
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 14 Fritsche A, Stefan N, Häring H. et al Avoidance of hypoglycemia restores hypoglycemia awareness by increasing beta-adrenergic sensitivity in type 1 diabetes. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 729-736 . EK IIb
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 15 Deutsche Diabetes Gesellschaft. S2k-Leitlinie Diagnostik, Therapie und Verlaufskontrolle des Diabetes mellitus im Alter. Angemeldete Leitlinie in Entstehung. Im Internet:. http://www.awmf.org/leitlinien/detail/anmeldung/1/ll/057-017.html . EK IV
  • 16 Lipska KJ, Hirsch IB, Riddle MC. Human Insulin for Type 2 Diabetes: An Effective, Less-Expensive Option. JAMA 2017; 318: 23-24 EK IV/LoE 4
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 17 Lucidi P, Porcellati F, Marinelli Andreoli A. et al Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of NPH Insulin in Type 1 Diabetes: The Importance of Appropriate Resuspension Before Subcutaneous Injection. Diabetes Care 2015; 38: 2204-2210 EK IV
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 18 Wutte A, Plank J, Sinner F. Dose-response relationship and within-subject variability of insulin detemir and NPH insulin in subjects with Type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 2004; 53 (Suppl. 02) A152 . EK IV
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 19 Becker RHA, Frick AD. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of insulin glulisine. Clin Pharmacokinet 2008; 47: 7-20 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 20 Weyer C, Heise T, Heinemann L. Insulin Aspart in a 30/70 Premixed Formulation. Pharmacodynamic properties of a rapid-acting insulin analog in stable mixture. Diabetes Care 1997; 20: 1612-1614 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 21 Woodworth JR, Howey DC, Bowsher RR. et al Comparative pharmacokinetics and glucodynamics of two human insulin mixtures. 70/30 and 50/50 insulin mixtures. Diabetes Care 1994; 17: 366-371 . EK II
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 22 Heise T, Hövelmann U, Nosek L. et al Comparison of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles of insulin degludec and insulin glargine. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2015; 11: 1193-1201 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 23 Haahr H, Heise T. A review of the pharmacological properties of insulin degludec and their clinical relevance. Clin Pharmacokinet 2014; 53: 787-800 . EK I
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 24 Nosek L, Coester HV, Roepstorff C. et al Glucose-Lowering Effect of Insulin Degludec is Independent of Subcutaneous Injection Region. Clin Drug Investig 2014; 34: 673-679 . EK II
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 25 Koehler G, Treiber G, Wutte A. et al Pharmacodynamics of the long-acting insulin analogues detemir and glargine following single-doses and under steady-state conditions in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 2014; 16: 57-62 . EK II
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 26 Heise T, Pieber TR. Towards peakless, reproducible and long-acting insulins. An assessment of the basal analogues based on isoglycaemic clamp studies. Diabetes Obes Metab 2007; 9: 648-659 . EK I
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 27 Becker RHA, Dahmen R, Bergmann K. et al New insulin glargine 300 Units · mL-1 provides a more even activity profile and prolonged glycemic control at steady state compared with insulin glargine 100 Units · mL-1: The ELEMENT 1 study. Diabetes Care 2015; 38: 637-643 . EK II
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 28 Shiramoto M, Eto T, Irie S. et al Single-dose new insulin glargine 300 U/ml provides prolonged, stable glycaemic control in Japanese and European people with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab 2015; 17: 254-260 . EK II
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 29 Heise T, Pieber TR, Danne T. et al A Pooled Analysis of Clinical Pharmacology Trials Investigating the Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Characteristics of Fast-Acting Insulin Aspart in Adults with Type 1 Diabetes. Clin Pharmacokinet 2017; 56: 551-559 . EK II
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 30 Heise T, Eckers U, Kanc K. et al The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of different formulations of biphasic insulin aspart: A randomized, glucose clamp, crossover study. Diabetes Technol Ther 2008; 10: 479-485 . EK II
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 31 Famulla S, Hovelmann U, Fischer A. et al Insulin Injection Into Lipohypertrophic Tissue: Blunted and More Variable Insulin Absorption and Action and Impaired Postprandial Glucose Control. Diabetes Care 2016; 39: 1486-1492 . EK II/LoE
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 32 Heise T, Weyer C, Serwas A. et al Time-Action Profiles of Novel Premixed Preparations of Insulin Lispro and NPL Insulin. Diabetes Care 1998; 21: 800-803 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 33 Rave K, Heinemann L, Puhl L. et al Premixed formulations of insulin lispro. Activity profiles in type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 1999; 22: 865-866 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 34 Brunner M, Pieber T, Korsatko S. et al The Distinct Prandial and Basal Pharmacodynamics of IDegAsp Observed in Younger Adults Are Preserved in Elderly Subjects with Type 1 Diabetes. Drugs Aging 2015; 32: 583-590 . EK II
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 35 Heise T, Nosek L, Roepstorff C. et al Distinct Prandial and Basal Glucose-Lowering Effects of Insulin Degludec/Insulin Aspart (IDegAsp) at Steady State in Subjects with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Ther 2014; 5: 255-265 . EK II
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 36 Institut für Qualität und Wirtschaftlichkeit im Gesundheitswesen. Kurzwirksame Insulinanaloga zur Behandlung des Diabetes mellitus Typ 1. Abschlussbericht. Auftrag A05-02. Version 1.0; 2007 EK Ia
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 37 Institut für Qualität und Wirtschaftlichkeit im Gesundheitswesen. Langwirksame Insulinanaloga zur Behandlung des Diabetes mellitus Typ 1. Abschlussbericht. Auftrag A05-01. Version 1.0; 2010 EK Ia
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 38 Singh SR, Ahmad F, Lal A. et al Efficacy and safety of insulin analogues for the management of diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. CMAJ 2009; 180: 385-397 . EK Ia
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 39 Monami M, Marchionni N, Mannucci E. Long-acting insulin analogues vs. NPH human insulin in type 1 diabetes. A meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab 2009; 11: 372-378 . EK Ia
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 40 Mullins P, Sharplin P, Yki-Jarvinen H. et al Negative binomial meta-regression analysis of combined glycosylated hemoglobin and hypoglycemia outcomes across eleven Phase III and IV studies of insulin glargine compared with neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin Ther 2007; 29: 1607-1619 . EK Ia
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 41 Ashwell SG, Bradley C, Stephens JW. et al Treatment satisfaction and quality of life with insulin glargine plus insulin lispro compared with NPH insulin plus unmodified human insulin in individuals with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2008; 31: 1112-1117 . EK Ib
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 42 Hermansen K, Fontaine P, Kukolja KK. et al Insulin analogues (insulin detemir and insulin aspart) versus traditional human insulins (NPH insulin and regular human insulin) in basal-bolus therapy for patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia 2004; 47: 622-629 . EK Ib
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 43 Bühn S, Breuing J, Mathes T. et al Evidenzbericht zu ausgewählten Rechercheaufträgen im Rahmen der S3-Leitlinie „Therapie des Typ-1-Diabetes“. Witten/Herdecke: IFOM – Institut für Forschung in der Operativen Medizin (Universität Witten/Herdecke); 2016
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 44 Fullerton B, Siebenhofer A, Jeitler K. et al Short-acting insulin analogues versus regular human insulin for adults with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; CD012161 . EK Ia/LoE 1++
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 45 Vardi M, Jacobson E, Nini A. et al Intermediate acting versus long acting insulin for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; CD006297 . EK Ia/LoE 1+
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 46 Retnakaran R, Hochman J, DeVries JH. et al Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily injections: the impact of baseline A1c. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 2590-2596 . EK Ia
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 47 Fatourechi MM, Kudva YC, Murad MH. et al Clinical review: Hypoglycemia with intensive insulin therapy: a systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized trials of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily injections. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 729-740 . EK Ia
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 48 Jeitler K, Horvath K, Berghold A. et al Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily insulin injections in patients with diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia 2008; 51: 941-951 . EK Ia
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 49 Pickup JC, Sutton AJ. Severe hypoglycaemia and glycaemic control in Type 1 diabetes: meta-analysis of multiple daily insulin injections compared with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion. Diabet Med 2008; 25: 765-774 . EK IIb
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 50 Bolli GB, Kerr D, Thomas R. et al Comparison of a multiple daily insulin injection regimen (basal once-daily glargine plus mealtime lispro) and continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (lispro) in type 1 diabetes: a randomized open parallel multicenter study. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 1170-1176 . EK Ib
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 51 Steineck I, Cederholm J, Eliasson B. et al Insulin pump therapy, multiple daily injections, and cardiovascular mortality in 18168 people with type 1 diabetes: observational study. BMJ 2015; 350: h3234 . EK IIb
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 52 Barnard KD, Lloyd CE, Skinner TC. Systematic literature review: quality of life associated with insulin pump use in Type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2007; 24: 607-617 . EK Ia
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 53 Hoogma RP, Hammond PJ, Gomis R. et al Comparison of the effects of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) and NPH-based multiple daily insulin injections (MDI) on glycaemic control and quality of life: results of the 5-nations trial. Diabet Med 2006; 23: 141-147 . EK Ib
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 54 Mukhopadhyay A, Farrell T, Fraser RB. et al Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion vs intensive conventional insulin therapy in pregnant diabetic women: a systematic review and metaanalysis of randomized, controlled trials. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 197: 447-456 . EK Ia
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 55 Farrar D, Tuffnell DJ, West J. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily injections of insulin for pregnant women with diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 3: CD005542 . EK Ia
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 56 Chen R, Ben-Haroush A, Weismann-Brenner A. et al Level of glycemic control and pregnancy outcome in type 1 diabetes: a comparison between multiple daily insulin injections and continuous subcutaneous insulin infusions. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 197: 404-405 . EK IIb
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 57 Cypryk K, Kosinski M, Kaminska P. et al Diabetes control and pregnancy outcomes in women with type 1 diabetes treated during pregnancy with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion or multiple daily insulin injections. Pol Arch Med Wewn 2008; 118: 339-344 . EK IIb
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 58 Gimenez M, Conget I, Nicolau J. et al Outcome of pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes intensively treated with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion or conventional therapy. A case-control study. Acta Diabetol 2007; 44: 34-37 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 59 Alto WA, Meyer D, Schneid J. et al Assuring the accuracy of home glucose monitoring. J Am Board Fam Pract 2002; 15: 1-6 . EK III
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 60 Saudek CD, Derr RL, Kalyani RR. Assessing glycemia in diabetes using self-monitoring blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c. JAMA 2006; 295: 1688-1697 . EK IV
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 61 Bundesärztekammer, Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung, Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften. Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Diabetes – Strukturierte Schulungsprogramme – Langfassung, 1. Auflage. Version 4. EK IV. Zugriff am 04. November 2017 unter: http://www.dm-schulung.versorgungsleitlinien.de
  • 62 Kulzer B, Albus C, Herpertz S. et al Psychosoziales und Diabetes (Teil 1). Diabetologie 2013; a 8: 198-242 . EK IV
    Thieme ConnectSuche in Google Scholar
  • 63 Kulzer B, Albus C, Herpertz S. et al Psychosoziales und Diabetes (Teil 2). Diabetologie 2013; b 8: 292-324 . EK IV
    Thieme ConnectSuche in Google Scholar
  • 64 Hermanns N, Kulzer B, Krichbaum M. Problemspezifische Patientenschulung. Übersicht zu einem wesentlichen Bestandteil der Diabetestherapie. Diabetologe 2008; 4: 361-367 . EK III
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 65 American Diabetes Association. 14. Diabetes Care in the Hospital. Diabetes Care 2017; 40 (Suppl. 01) S120-S127 . EK IV
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 66 Chen HS, Wu TE, Jap TS. et al Effects of health education on glycemic control during holiday time in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Manag Care 2008; 14: 45-51 . EK Ib/LoE
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 67 Canadian Diabetes Association. 2013 Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Management of Diabetes in Canada. EK IV. Zugriff am 23. Juli 2017 unter: http://guidelines.diabetes.ca/app_themes/cdacpg/resources/cpg_2013_full_en.pdf
  • 68 Graveling AJ, Frier BM. Hypoglycaemia: an overview. Prim Care Diabetes 2009; 3: 131-139 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 69 Cryer PE. The barrier of hypoglycemia in diabetes. Diabetes 2008; 57: 3169-3176 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 70 Deary IJ, Hepburn DA, MacLeod KM. et al Partitioning the symptoms of hypoglycaemia using multi-sample confirmatory factor analysis. Diabetologia 1993; 36: 771-777 . EK III/LoE 3
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 71 McAulay V, Deary IJ, Frier BM. Symptoms of hypoglycaemia in people with diabetes. Diabet Med 2001; 18: 690-705 . EK III
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 72 Haak T, Kellerer M. Deutsche Diabetes Gesellschaft. Diagnostik, Therapie und Verlaufskontrolle des Diabetes mellitus im Kindes- und Jugendalter. Mainz: Kirchheim; 2009. EK IV
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 73 Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Murphy MB. et al Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes: a consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 2739-2748 . EK IV
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 74 Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM. et al Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 1335-1343 . EK IV
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 75 Bull SV, Douglas IS, Foster M. et al Mandatory protocol for treating adult patients with diabetic ketoacidosis decreases intensive care unit and hospital lengths of stay: results of a nonrandomized trial. Crit Care Med 2007; 35: 41-46 . EK IIb
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 76 Joint British Diabetes Societies for inpatient care. The Management of Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Adults. Second Edition Update: September 2013. EK IV. Zugriff am 23. September 2017 unter: http://www.diabetologists-abcd.org.uk/JBDS/JBDS_IP_DKA_Adults_Revised.pdf
  • 77 Bundesärztekammer, Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung, Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften. Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Typ-2-Diabetes – Nierenerkrankungen bei Diabetes im Erwachsenenalter. Version Konsultation 1.0. ; 2010. EK IV
  • 78 Bundesärztekammer, Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung, Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften. Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Prävention und Therapie von Netzhautkomplikationen bei Diabetes – Langfassung, 2. Auflage. Version 2. EK IV. Zugriff am 19. Oktober 2017 unter: http://www.netzhautkomplikationen.versorgungsleitlinien.de
  • 79 Bundesärztekammer, Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung, Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften. Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Neuropathie bei Diabetes im Erwachsenenalter. 2010 EK IV
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 80 Bundesärztekammer, Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung, Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften. Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Typ-2-Diabetes – Präventions- und Behandlungsstrategien für Fuβkomplikationen. Version 2.8; 2006. EK IV
  • 81 Bundesärztekammer, Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften, Kassenärztliche Bundesvereinigung. Nationale VersorgungsLeitlinie Nierenerkrankungen bei Diabetes im Erwachsenenalter. 2010 EK IV
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 82 Linnebjerg H, Zhang Q, LaBell E. et al Pharmacokinetics and Glucodynamics of Ultra Rapid Lispro (URLi) versus Humalog (Lispro) in Younger Adults and Elderly Patients with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomised Controlled Trial. Clin Pharmacokinet 2020; 59: 1589-1599
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar