Pearls: Hyperkinetic Movement Disorders

ABSTRACT

Hyperkinetic movement disorders are characterized by an excessive degree of involuntary motor activity and are classified by their clinical phenomenology. The five major categories include tremor, dystonia, chorea and ballismus, tics, and myoclonus. This article presents a series of “pearls” for each category of movements, emphasizing the recognition of common disorders as well as rare, but treatable hyperkinesias. In addition to the major categories, clinical pearls also cover drug-induced movement disorders and psychogenic movement disorders.

KEYWORDS

Tremor - dystonia - chorea - myoclonus - tics - tardive dyskinesia - psychogenic movement disorder

REFERENCES

• 1 Deuschl G, Bain P, Brin M. Ad Hoc Scientific Committee . Consensus statement of the Movement Disorder Society on Tremor.  Mov Disord. 1998;  13(Suppl 3) 2-23
• 2 Reich S G. Tremor. In: Slavney PR, Hurko O Common Neurologic and Psychiatric Disorders Seen and Treated by Primary Care Physicians. Baltimore, MD; Johns Hopkins University Press 2001: 214-230
• 3 Hallett M. Classification and treatment of tremor.  JAMA. 1991;  266(8) 1115-1117
• 4 Benito-León J, Louis E D. Clinical update: diagnosis and treatment of essential tremor.  Lancet. 2007;  369(9568) 1152-1154
• 5 Morgan J C, Sethi K D. Drug-induced tremors.  Lancet Neurol. 2005;  4(12) 866-876
• 6 Koller W C, Rubino F A. Combined resting-postural tremors.  Arch Neurol. 1985;  42(7) 683-684
• 7 Jankovic J, Schwartz K S, Ondo W. Re-emergent tremor of Parkinson’s disease.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;  67(5) 646-650
• 8 Rajput A H, Rozdilsky B, Ang L, Rajput A. Significance of parkinsonian manifestations in essential tremor.  Can J Neurol Sci. 1993;  20(2) 114-117
• 9 Cohen O, Pullman S, Jurewicz E, Watner D, Louis E D. Rest tremor in patients with essential tremor: prevalence, clinical correlates, and electrophysiologic characteristics.  Arch Neurol. 2003;  60(3) 405-410
• 10 Shahed J, Jankovic J. Exploring the relationship between essential tremor and Parkinson’s disease.  Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2007;  13(2) 67-76
• 11 Klawans H L, Glantz R, Tanner C M, Goetz C G. Primary writing tremor: a selective action tremor.  Neurology. 1982;  32(2) 203-206
• 12 Marsden C D, Sheehy M P. Writer’s cramp.  Trends Neurosci. 1990;  13(4) 148-153
• 13 Heilman K M. Orthostatic tremor.  Arch Neurol. 1984;  41(8) 880-881
• 14 Zesiewicz T A, Reich S G. A woman who can walk but not stand. In: Reich SG Movement Disorders: 100 Instructive Cases. London, United Kingdom; Informa 2008: 27-29
• 15 Piboolnurak P, Yu Q P, Pullman S L. Clinical and neurophysiologic spectrum of orthostatic tremor: case series of 26 subjects.  Mov Disord. 2005;  20(11) 1455-1461
• 16 Schwartz M A, Selhorst J B, Ochs A L et al.. Oculomasticatory myorhythmia: a unique movement disorder occurring in Whipple’s disease.  Ann Neurol. 1986;  20(6) 677-683
• 17 Revilla F J, de la Cruz R, Khardori N, Espay A J. Teaching NeuroImage: oculomasticatory myorhythmia: pathognomonic phenomenology of Whipple disease.  Neurology. 2008;  70(6) e25
• 18 Geyer H L, Bressman S B. The diagnosis of dystonia.  Lancet Neurol. 2006;  5(9) 780-790
• 19 Nygaard T G, Wilhelmsen K C, Risch N J et al.. Linkage mapping of dopa-responsive dystonia (DRD) to chromosome 14q.  Nat Genet. 1993;  5(4) 386-391
• 20 Ichinose H, Ohye T, Takahashi E et al.. Hereditary progressive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation caused by mutations in the GTP cyclohydrolase I gene.  Nat Genet. 1994;  8(3) 236-242
• 21 Segawa M, Hosaka A, Miyagawa F, Nomura Y, Imai H. Hereditary progressive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation.  Adv Neurol. 1976;  14 215-233
• 22 Trender-Gerhard I, Sweeney M G, Schwingenschuh P et al.. Autosomal-dominant GTPCH1-deficient DRD: clinical characteristics and long-term outcome of 34 patients.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2009;  80(8) 839-845
• 23 Brewer G J, Fink J K, Hedera P. Diagnosis and treatment of Wilson’s disease.  Semin Neurol. 1999;  19(3) 261-270
• 24 Jankovic J, Orman J. Blepharospasm: demographic and clinical survey of 250 patients.  Ann Ophthalmol. 1984;  16(4) 371-376
• 25 Chan J, Brin M F, Fahn S. Idiopathic cervical dystonia: clinical characteristics.  Mov Disord. 1991;  6(2) 119-126
• 26 Reich S G, Meyer T. Teaching video NeuroImage: spasmodic dysphonia: adductor and abductor.  Neurology. 2008;  70(19) e78
• 27 Frucht S J. Focal task-specific dystonia in musicians.  Adv Neurol. 2004;  94 225-230
• 28 Lederman R J. Neuromuscular problems in musicians.  Neurologist. 2002;  8(3) 163-174
• 29 Schwarz C S, Bressman S B. Genetics and treatment of dystonia.  Neurol Clin. 2009;  27(3) 697-718
• 30 Schneider S A, Edwards M J, Grill S E et al.. Adult-onset primary lower limb dystonia.  Mov Disord. 2006;  21(6) 767-771
• 31 McKeon A, Matsumoto J Y, Bower J H, Ahlskog J E. The spectrum of disorders presenting as adult-onset focal lower extremity dystonia.  Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2008;  14(8) 613-619
• 32 Reich S G, Grill S E. Corticobasal degeneration.  Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2009;  11(3) 179-185
• 33 Mahapatra R K, Edwards M J, Schott J M, Bhatia K P. Corticobasal degeneration.  Lancet Neurol. 2004;  3(12) 736-743
• 34 Jankovic J. Peripherally induced movement disorders.  Neurol Clin. 2009;  27(3) 821-832
• 35 Schrag A, Trimble M, Quinn N, Bhatia K. The syndrome of fixed dystonia: an evaluation of 103 patients.  Brain. 2004;  127(Pt 10) 2360-2372
• 36 Postuma R B, Lang A E. Hemiballism: revisiting a classic disorder.  Lancet Neurol. 2003;  2(11) 661-668
• 37 Shannon K M. Hemiballismus.  Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2005;  7(3) 203-210
• 38 Oh S H, Lee K Y, Im J H, Lee M S. Chorea associated with non-ketotic hyperglycemia and hyperintensity basal ganglia lesion on T1-weighted brain MRI study: a meta-analysis of 53 cases including four present cases.  J Neurol Sci. 2002;  200(1-2) 57-62
• 39 Cardoso F. Huntington disease and other choreas.  Neurol Clin. 2009;  27(3) 719-736
• 40 Lorincz M T. Geriatric chorea.  Clin Geriatr Med. 2006;  22(4) 879-897
• 41 Gilstad J, Reich S G. Chorea in an octogenarian.  Neurologist. 2003;  9(3) 165-166
• 42 Schneider S A, Walker R H, Bhatia K P. The Huntington’s disease-like syndromes: what to consider in patients with a negative Huntington’s disease gene test.  Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2007;  3(9) 517-525
• 43 García Ruiz P J, Gómez-Tortosa E, del Barrio A et al.. Senile chorea: a multicenter prospective study.  Acta Neurol Scand. 1997;  95(3) 180-183
• 44 Caviness J N. Pathophysiology and treatment of myoclonus.  Neurol Clin. 2009;  27(3) 757-777
• 45 Krumholz A, Stern B J, Weiss H D. Outcome from coma after cardiopulmonary resuscitation: relation to seizures and myoclonus.  Neurology. 1988;  38(3) 401-405
• 46 Wijdicks E F, Hijdra A, Young G B, Bassetti C L, Wiebe S. Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology . Practice parameter: prediction of outcome in comatose survivors after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology.  Neurology. 2006;  67(2) 203-210
• 47 Goetting M G, Thirman M J. Neurotoxicity of meperidine.  Ann Emerg Med. 1985;  14(10) 1007-1009
• 48 Caviness J N. Myoclonus and neurodegenerative disease—what’s in a name?.  Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2003;  9(4) 185-192
• 49 Jankovic J. Tourette’s syndrome.  N Engl J Med. 2001;  345(16) 1184-1192
• 50 Jimenez-Shahed J. Tourette syndrome.  Neurol Clin. 2009;  27(3) 737-755
• 51 Chouinard S, Ford B. Adult onset tic disorders.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;  68(6) 738-743
• 52 Kenney C, Hunter C, Davidson A, Jankovic J. Metoclopramide, an increasingly recognized cause of tardive dyskinesia.  J Clin Pharmacol. 2008;  48(3) 379-384
• 53 Miller L G, Jankovic J. Metoclopramide-induced movement disorders. Clinical findings with a review of the literature.  Arch Intern Med. 1989;  149(11) 2486-2492
• 54 Pasricha P J, Pehlivanov N, Sugumar A, Jankovic J. Drug insight: from disturbed motility to disordered movement—a review of the clinical benefits and medicolegal risks of metoclopramide.  Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;  3(3) 138-148
• 55 Esper C D, Factor S A. Failure of recognition of drug-induced parkinsonism in the elderly.  Mov Disord. 2008;  23(3) 401-404
• 56 Stewart R B, Cerda J J, Moore M T, Hale W E. Metoclopramide: an analysis of inappropriate long-term use in the elderly.  Ann Pharmacother. 1992;  26(7-8) 977-979
• 57 Kaplan S, Staffa J A, Dal Pan G J. Duration of therapy with metoclopramide: a prescription claims data study.  Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2007;  16(8) 878-881
• 58 Chou K L, Friedman J H. Tardive syndromes in the elderly.  Clin Geriatr Med. 2006;  22(4) 915-933
• 59 Fernandez H H, Friedman J H. Classification and treatment of tardive syndromes.  Neurologist. 2003;  9(1) 16-27
• 60 Skidmore F, Reich S G. Tardive dystonia.  Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2005;  7(3) 231-236
• 61 Reich S G. Psychogenic movement disorders.  Semin Neurol. 2006;  26(3) 289-296
• 62 Peckham E L, Hallett M. Psychogenic movement disorders.  Neurol Clin. 2009;  27(3) 801-819
• 63 Stone J. The bare essentials: functional symptoms in neurology.  Pract Neurol. 2009;  9(3) 179-189
• 64 Williams D T, Ford B, Fahn S. Phenomenology and psychopathology related to psychogenic movement disorders.  Adv Neurol. 1995;  65 231-257
• 65 Factor S A, Podskalny G D, Molho E S. Psychogenic movement disorders: frequency, clinical profile, and characteristics.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;  59(4) 406-412
• 66 Thomas M, Jankovic J. Psychogenic movement disorders: diagnosis and management.  CNS Drugs. 2004;  18(7) 437-452
• 67 Kim Y J, Pakiam A S, Lang A E. Historical and clinical features of psychogenic tremor: a review of 70 cases.  Can J Neurol Sci. 1999;  26(3) 190-195
• 68 Deuschl G, Köster B, Lücking C H, Scheidt C. Diagnostic and pathophysiological aspects of psychogenic tremors.  Mov Disord. 1998;  13(2) 294-302
• 69 Monday K, Jankovic J. Psychogenic myoclonus.  Neurology. 1993;  43(2) 349-352
• 70 Lang A E. Psychogenic dystonia: a review of 18 cases.  Can J Neurol Sci. 1995;  22(2) 136-143
• 71 Ranawaya R, Riley D, Lang A. Psychogenic dyskinesias in patients with organic movement disorders.  Mov Disord. 1990;  5(2) 127-133
• 72 Jankovic J. Can peripheral trauma induce dystonia and other movement disorders? Yes!.  Mov Disord. 2001;  16(1) 7-12
• 73 Weiner W J. Can peripheral trauma induce dystonia? No!.  Mov Disord. 2001;  16(1) 13-22
• 74 Schrag A, Trimble M, Quinn N, Bhatia K. The syndrome of fixed dystonia: an evaluation of 103 patients.  Brain. 2004;  127(Pt 10) 2360-2372
• 75 Anderson K E, Gruber-Baldini A L, Vaughan C G et al.. Impact of psychogenic movement disorders versus Parkinson’s on disability, quality of life, and psychopathology.  Mov Disord. 2007;  22(15) 2204-2209
• 76 Stone J, Sharpe M. Functional symptoms in neurology: case studies.  Neurol Clin. 2006;  24(2) 385-403
• 77 Crimlisk H L, Bhatia K, Cope H, David A, Marsden C D, Ron M A. Slater revisited: 6 year follow up study of patients with medically unexplained motor symptoms.  BMJ. 1998;  316(7131) 582-586