Die Bedeutung neurobiologischer Faktoren bei der Aggressionsgenese I

J. L. Müller

doi:10.1055/s-0038-1626805

Nervenheilkunde, Inhaltsverzeichnis

Nervenheilkunde 2006; 25(11): 953-961
DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1626805

Originaler Artikel

Schattauer GmbH

Die Bedeutung neurobiologischer Faktoren bei der Aggressionsgenese I

Genetische und neurochemische AspekteThe impact of neuro-biological factors in the genesis of violence IGenetical and neuro-chemical aspects

J. L. Müller

¹Abteilung für Forensische Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie im Niedersächsischen Landeskrankenhaus, Georg August Universität Göttingen

› Institutsangaben

Abstract

Zusammenfassung

Die neurobiologischen Grundlagen der Aggressionsgenese sind noch weitgehend ungeklärt. Einer Vielzahl neurochemischer Faktoren, neuroanatomischer Strukturen und neurofunktioneller Veränderungen wird eine Bedeutung bei der Genese aggressiver Handlungen zugeschrieben. Manche der vorliegenden Ergebnisse sind noch widersprüchlich, andere Befunde wurden dagegen wiederholt bestätigt. Im Folgenden wird eine Übersicht über bislang vorliegende neurochemische Befunde und genetische Einflussfaktoren der Genese auto- und fremdaggressiver Verhaltensweisen gegeben. Wenn dabei im Wesentlichen neurobiologische Faktoren der Aggressionsgenese dargestellt werden, so im Bewusstsein, dass Gewalt multifaktoriell bedingt ist und die neurobiologischen Aspekte lediglich einen Teil des umfassenden Bedingungsgefüges der Aggressionsgenese erklären können.

Summary

The neurobiology of violence and aggression is poorly understood. A lot of neurochemical, neuroanatomical and neurofunctional factors have been described to be involved in the genesis of violence. Most of the results are heterogeneous, others have been replicated. The following article gives an overview on recent neurobiological findings on violence and aggression. In particular, neurochemical findings and genetical influences on aggressive behaviour are outlined. In the following chapter, a neurobiological approach on violence is given knowing very well that the conditions of violence are multifactorial and that neurobiology is just one part of the influencing factors of aggression.

Schlüsselwörter

Aggression - Serotonin - Cholesterin - Neurochemie - Genetik

Keywords

Aggression - serotonine - cholesterol - neurochemistry - genetic

Volltext

Referenzen

Literatur
1 Agargun MY, Sekeroglu MR, Kara H, Ozer OA, Tombul T, Kiran U, Selvi Y. Sleep-related violence and low serum cholesterol: a preliminary study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2002; 56: 195-8.
2 Agrawal HR, Hauser ST, Miller M, Penn H. “My Father Did This to Me!” the psychodynamic treatment of an angry, sad, and violent young man. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2003; 11: 194-209.
3 Alvarez JC, Cremniter D, Gluck N, Quintin P, Leboyer M, Berlin I, Therond P, Spreux-Varoquaux O. Low serum cholesterol in violent but not in non-violent suicide attempters. Psychiatry Res 2000; 95: 103-8.
4 Alvarez JC, Cremniter D, Lesieur P, Gregoire A, Gilton A, Macquin-Mavier I, Jarreau C, SpreuxVaroquaux O. Low blood cholesterol and low platelet serotonin levels in violent suicide attempters. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 45: 1066-9.
5 Apter A, Laufer N, Bar-Sever M, Har-Even D, Ofek H, Weizman A. Serum cholesterol, suicidal tendencies, impulsivity, aggression, and depression in adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 46: 532-41.
6 Archer J. The influence of testosterone on human aggression. Br J Psychol 1991; 82 (Pt 1): 1-28.
7 Asberg M. Biochemical aspects of suicide. Clin Neuropharmacol 1986; 09: 374-6.
8 Asberg M. Neurotransmitters and suicidal behavior. The evidence from cerebrospinal fluid studies. Ann NY Acad Sci 1997; 836: 158-81.
9 Asberg M, Nordstrom P, Traskman-Bendz L. Cerebrospinal fluid studies in suicide. An overview. Ann NY Acad Sci 1986; 487: 243-55.
10 Asberg M, Traskman L. Studies of CSF 5-HIAA in depression and suicidal behaviour. Adv Exp Med Biol 1981; 133: 739-52.
11 Asberg M, Traskman L, Thoren P. 5-HIAA in the cerebrospinal fluid. A biochemical suicide predictor?. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976; 33: 1193-7.
12 Badawy AA. Alcohol and violence and the possible role of serotonin. Crim Behav Ment Health 2003; 13: 31-44.
13 Banks T, Dabbs Jr. JM. Salivary testosterone and cortisol in a delinquent and violent urban subculture. J Soc Psychol 1996; 136: 49-56.
14 Belfrage H, Lidberg L, Oreland L. Platelet monoamine oxidase activity in mentally disordered violent offenders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1992; 85: 218-21.
15 Bennett PJ, McMahon WM, Watabe J, Achilles J, Bacon M, Coon H, Grey T, Keller T, Tate D, Tcaciuc I, Workman J, Gray D. Tryptophan hydroxylase polymorphisms in suicide victims. Psychiatr Genet 2000; 10: 13-7.
16 Berggard C, Damberg M, Longato-Stadler E, Hallman J, Oreland L, Garpenstrand H. The serotonin 2A –1438 G/A receptor polymorphism in a group of Swedish male criminals. Neurosci Lett 2003; 347: 196-8.
17 Bernhardt PC, Dabbs Jr JM, Fielden JA, Lutter CD. Testosterone changes during vicarious experiences of winning and losing among fans at sporting events. Physiol Behav 1998; 65: 59-62.
18 Birger SwartzMM, Cohen D, Alesh Y, Grishpan C, Kotelr M. Aggression: the testosterone-serotonin link. Isr Med Assoc J 2003; 05: 653-8.
19 Biver F, Lotstra F, Monclus M, Wikler D, Damhaut P, Mendlewicz J, Goldman S. Sex difference in 5HT2 receptor in the living human brain. Neurosci Lett 1996; 204: 25-8.
20 Bjork JM, Dougherty DM, Moeller FG, Cherek DR, Swann AC. The effects of tryptophan depletion and loading on laboratory aggression in men: time course and a food-restricted control. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999; 142: 24-30.
21 Brown CS, Kent TA, Bryant SG, Gevedon RM, Campbell JL, Felthous AR, Barratt ES, Rose RM. Blood platelet uptake of serotonin in episodic aggression. Psychiatry Res 1989; 27: 5-12.
22 Brown GL, Linnoila MI. CSF serotonin metabolite (5-HIAA) studies in depression, impulsivity, and violence. J Clin Psychiatry 1983; 51 Suppl: 31-41.
23 Brunner HG, Nelen M, Breakefield XO, Ropers HH, van Oost BA. Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. Science 1993; 262: 578-80.
24 Buydens-Branch M, Branchey JHudson, Fergeson P. Low HDL cholesterol, aggression and altered central serotonergic activity. Psychiatry Res 2000; 93: 93-102.
25 Cases O, Seif I, Grimsby J, Gaspar P, Chen K, Pournin S, Muller U, Aguet M, Babinet C, Shih JC. Aggressive behavior and altered amounts of brain serotonin and norepinephrine in mice lacking MAOA. Science 1995; 268: 1763-6.
26 Caspi A, McClay J, Moffitt TE, Mill J, Martin J, Craig IW, Taylor RPoulton. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 2002; 297: 851-4.
27 Cherek DR, Lane SD. Effects of d,l-fenfluramine on aggressive and impulsive responding in adult males with a history of conduct disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999; 146: 473-81.
28 Cherek DR, Lane SD. Acute effects of D-fenfluramine on simultaneous measures of aggressive escape and impulsive responses of adult males with and without a history of conduct disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2001; 157: 221-7.
29 Cherek DR, Lane SD, Pietras CJ, Steinberg JL. Effects of chronic paroxetine administration on measures of aggressive and impulsive responses of adult males with a history of conduct disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2002; 159: 266-74.
30 Cloninger CR, Christiansen KO, Reich T, Gottesman II. Implications of sex differences in the prevalences of antisocial personality, alcoholism, and criminality for familial transmission. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1978; 35: 941-51.
31 Cloninger CR, Sigvardsson S, Bohman M, von Knorring AL. Predisposition to petty criminality in Swedish adoptees. II. Cross-fostering analysis of gene-environment interaction. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982; 39: 1242-7.
32 Coccaro EF, Bergeman CS, Kavoussi RJ, Seroczynski AD. Heritability of aggression and irritability: a twin study of the Buss-Durkee aggression scales in adult male subjects. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 41: 273-84.
33 Coccaro EF, Kavoussi RJ, Cooper TB, Hauger RL. Central serotonin activity and aggression: inverse relationship with prolactin response to d-fenfluramine, but not CSF 5-HIAA concentration, in human subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 1430-5.
34 Coccaro EF, Kavoussi RJ, Hauger RL, Cooper TB, Ferris CF. Cerebrospinal fluid vasopressin levels: correlates with aggression and serotonin function in personality-disordered subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 708-14.
35 Dabbs Jr. JM, de La RD, Williams PM. Testosterone and occupational choice: actors, ministers, and other men. J Pers Soc Psychol 1990; 59: 1261-5.
36 Dabbs Jr. JM, Hargrove MF. Age, testosterone, and behavior among female prison inmates. Psychosom Med 1997; 59: 477-80.
37 Dabbs Jr JM, Mohammed S. Male and female salivary testosterone concentrations before and after sexual activity. Physiol Behav 1992; 52: 195-7.
38 Davidson RJ, Putnam KM, Larson CL. Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation-a possible prelude to violence. Science 2000; 289: 591-4.
39 DeJong J, Virkkunen M, Linnoila M. Factors associated with recidivism ina criminal population. J Nerv Ment Dis 1992; 180: 543-50.
40 Dolan M, Anderson IM, Deakin JF. Relationship between 5-HT function and impulsivity and aggression in male offenders with personality disorders. Br J Psychiatry 2001; 178: 352-9.
41 Dolan M, Deakin WJ, Roberts N, Anderson I. Serotonergic and cognitive impairment in impulsive aggressive personality disordered offenders: are there implications for treatment?. Psychol Med 2002; 32: 105-17.
42 Eronen M. Mental disorders and homicidal behavior in female subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 1216-8.
43 Eronen M, Angermeyer MC, Schulze B. The psychiatric epidemiology of violent behaviour. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 1998; 33: 13-23.
44 Eronen M, Hakola P, Tiihonen J. Mental disorders and homicidal behavior in Finland. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996; 53: 497-501.
45 Fergusson D, Doucette S, Glass KC, Shapiro S, Healy D, Hebert P, Hutton B. Association between suicide attempts and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2005; 330: 396.
46 Filley CM, Price BH, Nell V, Antoinette T, MorganA S, BresnahanJ F, Pincus JH, Gelbort MM, Weissberg M, KellyJ P. Toward an understanding of violence: neurobehavioral aspects of unwarranted physical aggression: Aspen Neurobehavioral Conference consensus statement. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 2001; 14: 1-14.
47 Fishbein DH, Lozovsky D, Jaffe JH. Impulsivity, aggression, and neuroendocrine responses to serotonergic stimulation in substance abusers. Biol Psychiatry 1989; 25: 1049-66.
48 Garza-Trevino ES. Neurobiological factors in aggressive behavior. Hosp.Community Psychiatry 1994; 45: 690-9.
49 George DT, Umhau JC, Phillips MJ, Emmela D, Ragan PW, Shoaf SE, Rawlings R. Serotonin, testosterone and alcohol in the etiology of domestic violence. Psychiatry Res 2001; 104: 27-37.
50 Gogos JA, Morgan M, Luine V, Santha M, Ogawa S, Pfaff D, Karayiorgou M. Catechol-O-methyltransferase-deficient mice exhibit sexually dimorphic changes in catecholamine levels and behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95: 9991-6.
51 Golomb BA, Stattin H, Mednick S. Low cholesterol and violent crime. J Psychiatr Res 2000; 34: 301-9.
52 Greendyke RM, Kanter DR. Therapeutic effects of pindolol on behavioral disturbances associated with organic brain disease: a double-blind study. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47: 423-6.
53 Greendyke RM, Kanter DR, Schuster DB, Verstreate S, Wootton J. Propranolol treatment of assaultive patients with organic brain disease. A double-blind crossover, placebo-controlled study. J Nerv Ment Dis 1986; 174: 290-4.
54 Grove WM, Eckert ED, Heston L, Bouchard Jr. TJ, Segal N, Lykken DT. Heritability of substance abuse and antisocial behavior: a study of monozygotic twins reared apart. Biol Psychiatry 1990; 27: 1293-304.
55 Gunnell D, Saperia J, Ashby D. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and suicide in adults: meta-analysis of drug company data from placebo controlled, randomised controlled trials submitted to the MHRA’s safety review. BMJ 2005; 330: 385.
56 Hallikainen T, Lachman H, Saito T, Volavka J, Kauhanen J, Salonen JT, Ryynanen OP, Koulu M, Karvonen MK, Pohjalainen T, Syvalahti E, Hietala J, Tiihonen J. Lack of association between the functional variant of the catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT) gene and early-onset alcoholism associated with severe antisocial behavior. Am J Med Genet 2000; 96: 348-52.
57 Hallikainen T, Saito T, Lachman H, Volavka J, Pohjalainen T, Ryynanen OP, Kauhanen J, Syvalahti E, Hietala J, Tiihonen J. Association between low activity serotonin transporter promoter genotype and early onset alcoholism with habitual impulsive violent behavior. Mol Psychiatry 1999; 04: 385-8.
58 Herpertz S, Sass H, Favazza A. Impulsivity in selfmutilative behavior: psychometric and biological findings. J Psychiatr Res 1997; 31: 451-65.
59 Higley JD, Hasert MF, Suomi SJ, Linnoila M. Nonhuman primate model of alcohol abuse: effects of early experience, personality, and stress on alcohol consumption. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 7261-5.
60 Higley JD, Suomi SJ, Linnoila M. CSF monoamine metabolite concentrations vary according to age, rearing, and sex, and are influenced by the stressor of social separation in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1991; 103: 551-6.
61 Hillbrand M, Waite BM, Miller DS, Spitz RT, Lingswiler VM. Serum cholesterol concentrations and mood states in violent psychiatric patients: an experience sampling study. J Behav Med 2000; 23: 519-29.
62 Holmes A, Murphy DL, Crawley JN. Reduced aggression in mice lacking the serotonin transporter. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2002; 161: 160-7.
63 Huang T, Wu S. Serum cholesterol levels in paranoid and non-paranoid schizophrenia associated with physical violence or suicide attempts in Taiwanese. Psychiatry Res 2000; 96: 175-8.
64 Johansson AK, Bergvall AH, Hansen S. Behavioral disinhibition following basal forebrain excitotoxin lesions: alcohol consumption, defensive aggression, impulsivity and serotonin levels. Behav Brain Res 1999; 102: 17-29.
65 Kotler M, Barak P, Cohen H, Averbuch IE, Grinshpoon A, Gritsenko I, Nemanov L, Ebstein RP. Homicidal behavior in schizophrenia associated with a genetic polymorphism determining low catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT) activity. Am J Med Genet 1999; 88: 628-33.
66 Krakowski M. Violence and serotonin: influence of impulse control, affect regulation, and social functioning. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2003; 15: 294-305.
67 Kruesi MJ, Hibbs ED, Zahn TP, Keysor CS, Hamburger SD, Bartko J, Rapoport JL. A 2-year prospective follow-up study of children and adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders. Prediction by cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, homovanillic acid, and autonomic measures? Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49: 429-35.
68 Kunz M, Sikora J, Krakowski M, Convit A, Cooper TB, Volavka J. Serotonin in violent patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 1995; 59: 161-3.
69 Lachman HM, Nolan KA, Mohr P, Saito T, Volavka J. Association between catechol O-methyltransferase genotype and violence in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. AmJ Psychiatry 1998; 155: 835-7.
70 Lappalainen J, Long JC, Eggert M, Ozaki N, Robin RW, Brown GL, Naukkarinen H, Virkkunen M, Linnoila M, Goldman D. Linkage of antisocial alcoholism to the serotonin 5-HT1B receptor gene in 2 populations. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 989-94.
71 Lee R, Coccaro E. The neuropsychopharmacology of criminality and aggression. Can J Psychiatry 2001; 46: 35-44.
72 Lidberg L, Belfrage H, Bertilsson L, Evenden MM, Asberg M. Suicide attempts and impulse control disorder are related to low cerebrospinal fluid 5-HIAA in mentally disordered violent offenders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2000; 101: 395-402.
73 Lidberg L, Tuck JR, Asberg M, Scalia-Tomba GP, Bertilsson L. Homicide, suicide and CSF 5-HIAA. Acta Psychiatr.Scand 1985; 71: 230-6.
74 Limson R, Goldman D, Roy A, Lamparski D, Ravitz B, Adinoff B, Linnoila M. Personality and cerebrospinal fluid monoamine metabolites in alcoholics and controls. Arch.Gen.Psychiatry 1991; 48: 437-41.
75 Linnoila M, Virkkunen M, Scheinin M, Nuutila A, Rimon R, Goodwin FK. Low cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentration differentiates impulsive from nonimpulsive violent behavior. Life Sci 1983; 33: 2609-14.
76 Linnoila VM, Virkkunen M. Aggression, suicidality, and serotonin. J.Clin.Psychiatry 1992; 53: 46-51.
77 Ludwig J, Marcotte DE. Anti-depressants, suicide, and drug regulation. J.Policy Anal Manage 2005; 24: 249-72.
78 Mann JJ. The neurobiology of suicide. Nat Med 1998; 04: 25-30.
79 Manuck SB, Flory JD, McCaffery JM, Matthews KA, Mann JJ, Muldoon MF. Aggression, impulsivity, and central nervous system serotonergic responsivity in a nonpatient sample. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998; 19: 287-99.
80 Mulder RT, Joyce PR. Relationship of temperament and behaviour measures to the prolactin response to fenfluramine in depressed men. Psychiatry Res 2002; 109: 221-8.
81 New AS, Gelernter J, Yovell Y, Trestman RL, Nielsen DA, Silverman J, Mitropoulou V, Siever LJ. Tryptophan hydroxylase genotype is associated with impulsive-aggression measures:a preliminary study. AmJ Med Genet 1998; 81: 13-7.
82 New AS, Hazlett EA, Buchsbaum MS, Goodman M, Reynolds D, Mitropoulou V, Sprung L, Shaw Jr. RB, Koenigsberg H, Platholi J, Silverman J, Siever LJ. Blunted prefrontal cortical 18fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography response to meta-chlorophenylpiperazine in impulsive aggression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002; 59: 621-9.
83 New AS, Sevin EM, Mitropoulou V, Reynolds D, Novotny SL, Callahan A, Trestman RL, Siever LJ. Serum cholesterol and impulsivity in personality disorders. Psychiatry Res 1999; 85: 145-50.
84 Nielsen DA, Goldman D, Virkkunen M, Tokola R, Rawlings R, Linnoila M. Suicidality and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentration associated with a tryptophan hydroxylase polymorphism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51: 34-8.
85 O’Connor DB, Archer J, Hair WM, Wu FC. Activational effects of testosterone on cognitive function in men. Neuropsychologia 2001; 39: 1385-94.
86 O’Connor DB, Archer J, Hair WM, Wu FC. Exogenous testosterone, aggression, and mood in eugonadal and hypogonadal men. Physiol Behav 2002; 75: 557-66.
87 Oquendo MA, Placidi GP, Malone KM, Campbell C, Keilp J, Brodsky B, Kegeles LS, Cooper TB, Parsey RV, van Heertum RL, Mann JJ. Positron emission tomography of regional brain metabolic responses toa serotonergic challenge and lethality of suicide attempts in major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60: 14-22.
88 Pennebaker JW, Groom CJ, Loew D, Dabbs JM. Testosterone as a social inhibitor: two case studies of the effect of testosterone treatment on language. J Abnorm Psychol 2004; 113: 172-5.
89 Raine A. Genetics and Crime. In: The psychopathology of Crime.San. Diego: Academic Press; 1993: 47-79.
90 Raine A. Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: a review. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2002; 30: 311-26.
91 Regier DA, Farmer ME, Rae DS, Locke BZ, Keith SJ, Judd LL, Goodwin FK. Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. Results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study. JAMA 1990; 264: 2511-8.
92 Repo-Tiihonen E, Halonen P, Tiihonen J, Virkkunen M. Total serum cholesterol level, violent criminal offences, suicidal behavior, mortality and the appearance of conduct disorder in Finnish male criminal offenders with antisocial personality disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2002; 252: 8-11.
93 Robins LN. Discussion of genetic studies of criminality and psychopathy. 1975; 117-22.
94 Roy A, Virkkunen M, Guthrie S, Linnoila M. Indices of serotonin and glucose metabolism in violent offenders, arsonists, and alcoholics. Ann NY Acad Sci 1986; 487: 202-20.
95 Roy A, Virkkunen M, Guthrie S, Poland R, Linnoila M. Monoamines, glucose metabolism, suicidal and aggressive behaviors. PsychopharmacolBull 1986; 22: 661-5.
96 Seneviratne SL, Warnasooriya WM, GunatilakeS B, Fonseka MM, Gunawardena MK, de Silva HJ. Serum cholesterol concentrations in parasuicide. Ceylon Med J 1999; 44: 11-3.
97 Soderstrom H, Blennow K, Manhem A, Forsman A. CSF studies in violent offenders. I. 5-HIAA as a negative and HVA asa positive predictor of psychopathy 2001; 108: 869-78.
98 Soderstrom H, Hultin L, Tullberg M, Wikkelso C, Ekholm S, Forsman A. Reduced frontotemporal perfusion in psychopathic personality. Psychiatry Res 2002; 114: 81-94.
99 Spreux-Varoquaux O, Alvarez JC, Berlin I, Batista G, Despierre PG, Gilton A, Cremniter D. Differential abnormalities in plasma 5-HIAA and platelet serotonin concentrations in violent suicide attempters: relationships with impulsivity and depression. Life Sci 2001; 69: 647-57.
100 Staner L, Mendlewicz J. Heredity and role of serotonin in aggressive impulsive behavior. Encephale 1998; 24: 355-64.
101 Steadman HJ. Critically reassessing the accuracy of public perceptions of the dangerousness of the mentally ill. J Health Soc Behav 1981; 22: 310-6.
102 Steadman HJ, Cocozza JJ, Melick ME. Explaining the increased arrest rate among mental patients: the changing clientele of state hospitals. Am J Psychiatry 1978; 135: 816-20.
103 Steadman HJ, Mulvey EP, Monahan J, RobbinsP C, Appelbaum PS, Grisso T, Roth LH, Silver E. Violence by people discharged from acute psychiatric inpatient facilities and by othrs in the same neighborhoods. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 393-401.
104 Steinert T, Woelfle M, Gebhardt RP. No correlation of serum cholesterol levels with measures of violence in patients with schizophrenia and nonpsychotic disorders. Eur Psychiatry 1999; 14: 346-8.
105 Strous RD, Bark N, Parsia SS, Volavka J, Lachman HM. Analysis of a functional catechol-O-methyltransferase gene polymorphism in schizophrenia: evidence for association with aggressive and antisocial behavior. Psychiatry Res 1997; 69: 71-7.
106 Swanson J, Estroff S, Swartz M, Borum R, Lachicotte W, Zimmer C, Wagner R. Violence and severe mental disorder in clinical and community populations: the effects of psychotic symptoms, comorbidity, and lack of treatment. Psychiatry 1997; 60: 1-22.
107 Swartz MS, Swanson JW, Hiday VA, Borum R, Wagner HR, Burns BJ. Violence and severe mental illness: the effects of substance abuse and nonadherence to medication. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 226-31.
108 Swartz MS, Swanson JW, Hiday VA, Borum R, Wagner HR, Burns BJ. Taking the wrong drugs: the role of substance abuse and medication noncompliance in violence among severely mentally ill individuals. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 1998; 33 (Suppl. 01) S75-S80.
109 Tanskanen A, Vartiainen E, Tuomilehto J, Viinamaki H, Lehtonen J, Puska P. High serum cholesterol and risk of suicide. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 648-50.
110 Tardiff K, Sweillam A. Assault, suicide and mental illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980; 37: 164-9.
111 Tiihonen J, Virkkunen M, Rasanen P, Pennanen S, Sainio EL, Callaway J, Halonen P, Liesivuori J. Free L-tryptophan plasma levels in antisocial violent offenders. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2001; 157: 395-400.
112 Torrey EF. Violent behavior by individuals with serious mental illness. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1994; 45: 653-62.
113 Unis AS, Cook EH, Vincent JG, Gjerde DK, Perry BD, Mason C, Mitchell J. Platelet serotonin measures in adolescents with conduct disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 42: 553-9.
114 Valliant PM, Gristey C, Pottier D, Kosmyna R. Risk factors in violent and nonviolent offenders. Psychol Rep 1999; 85: 675-80.
115 Virkkunen M. Serum cholesterol levels in homicidal offenders.A low cholesterol level is connected with a habitually violent tendency under the influence of alcohol. Neuropsychobiology 1983; 10: 65-9.
116 Virkkunen M. Reactive hypoglycemic tendency among arsonists. Acta Psychiatr.Scand 1984; 69: 445-52.
117 Virkkunen M. Reactive hypoglycemic tendency among habitually violent offenders. Nutr Rev 1986; 44 Suppl a94-103.
118 Virkkunen M, De Jong J, Bartko J, Goodwin FK, Linnoila M. Relationship of psychobiological variables to recidivism in violent offenders and impulsive fire setters. A follow-up study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989; 46: 600-3.
119 Virkkunen M, De Jong J, Bartko J, Linnoila M. Psychobiological concomitants of history of suicide attempts among violent offenders and impulsive fire setters. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989; 46: 604-6.
120 Virkkunen M, Eggert M, Rawlings R, Linnoila M. A prospective follow-up study of alcoholic violent offenders and fire setters. Arch.Gen.Psychiatry 1996; 53: 523-529.
121 Virkkunen M, Huttunen MO. Evidence for abnormal glucose tolerance test among violent offenders. Neuropsychobiology 1982; 08: 30-4.
122 Virkkunen M, Linnoila M. Serotonin in early-onset alcoholism. Recent Dev.Alcohol 1997; 13: 173-89.
123 Virkkunen M, Penttinen H. Serum cholesterol in aggressive conduct disorder: a preliminary study. Biol Psychiatry 1984; 19: 435-9.
124 Virkkunen M, Rawlings R, Tokola R, Poland RE, Guidotti A, Nemeroff C, Bissette G, Kalogeras K, Karonen SL, Linnoila M. CSF biochemistries, glucose metabolism, and diurnal activity rhythms in alcoholic, violent offenders, fire setters, and healthy volunteers. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51: 20-7.
125 Volavka J. The neurobiology of violence: an update: J. Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999; 11: 307-14.
126 Weizmann-Henelius G, Sailas E, Viemero V, Eronen M. Violent women, blame attribution, crime, and personality. Psychopathology 2002; 35: 355-61.
127 Witkin HA, Goodenough DR, Hirschhorn K. XYY men: are they criminally aggressive?. Sciences 1977; 17: 10-3.
128 Witkin HA, Mednick SA, Schulsinger F, Bakkestrom E, Christiansen KO, Goodenough DR, Hirschhorn K, Lundsteen C, Owen DR, Philip J, Rubin DB, Stocking M. Criminality in XYY and XXY men. Science 1976; 193: 547-55.
129 Wurtman RJ, Hefti F, Melamed E. Precursor control of neurotransmitter synthesis. Pharmacol Rev 1980; 32: 315-35.
130 Zalsman G, Frisch A, Apter A, Weizman A. Genetics of suicidal behavior: candidate association genetic approach. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci 2002; 39: 252-61.
131 Zalsman G, Frisch A, Bromberg M, Gelernter J, Michaelovsky E, Campino A, Erlich Z, Tyano S, Apter A, Weizman A. Family-based association study of serotonin transporter promoter in suicidal adolescents: no association with suicidality but possible role in violence traits. Am J Med Genet 2001; 105: 239-45.