PDF herunterladen
Nervenheilkunde 2010; 29(01/02): 21-30
DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1628714
Adhs
Schattauer GmbH

Funktionelle Bildgebung kognitiver Prozesse bei der ADHS des Erwachsenenalters

Functional neuroimaging of cognition in adults with ADHD
R. C. Wolf
1   Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie III, Universität Ulm
,
N. Vasic
1   Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie III, Universität Ulm
› Institutsangaben
Weitere Informationen

Publikationsverlauf

Eingegangen am: 20. September 2009

angenommen am: 22. September 2009

Publikationsdatum:
24. Januar 2018 (online)

    Lizenzen und Reprints

Zusammenfassung

Die Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivitätsstörung (ADHS) des Erwachsenenalters ist klinisch durch kognitive Defizite, impulsives Verhalten und motorische Überaktivität sowie daraus resultierende Einbußen des psychosozialen Leistungsniveaus charakterisiert. Über eine Störung der Aufmerksamkeit hinaus umfasst das kognitive Defizitmuster multiple Bereiche einschließlich des Gedächtnisses und der exekutiven Leistung. In dieser Übersicht sollen verfügbare funktionell bildgebende Untersuchungen kognitiver Prozesse bei der ADHS des Erwachsenenalters dargestellt und diskutiert werden. Ungeachtet der klinisch und methodisch heterogenen Datenlage weisen nuklearmedizinische und funktionelle magnetresonanztomografische Untersuchungen auf eine Störung lateral und medial präfrontaler, striataler und zerebellärer Areale hin, im Einklang mit strukturellen Veränderungen dieser Regionen, deren Responsivität auf Methylphenidat und der funktionellen Relevanz lateral und medial präfrontaler, striataler und zerebellärer Netzwerke. Der zunehmende Einsatz funktionell bildgebender Methoden bei der ADHS des Erwachsenenalters leistet sowohl einen wichtigen Beitrag bei der objektiven Beschreibung pathogenetisch bedeutsamer neuronaler Korrelate der Störung als auch bei der Charakterisierung kognitiver und neurofunktioneller Endophänotypen.

Summary

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by cognitive deficits, impulsive behavior, hyperactivity and resulting psychosocial impairment. Beyond attentional deficits, cognitive dysfunction has been described to encompass multiple domains including memory and executive skills. This review provides an overview and a discussion of functional neuroimaging studies investigating cognitive function in adult ADHD. Despite clinical and methodological heterogeneity, currently available functional neuroimaging data suggest a dysfunction of lateral and medial prefrontal, striatal and cerebellar regions. These findings are in accordance with structural abnormalities found in these areas, with frontostriatal responsivity to methylphenidate administration and with the functional relevance of frontostriatal networks. The increasing availability of functional imaging techniques and their application to ADHD has led to hypothesis-driven approaches regarding the neurobiological substrates of this disorder, and may contribute to the characterization of cognitive and neurofunctional endophenotypes.

Schlüsselwörter

ADHS - funktionelle Magnetresonanztomografie - Inhibition - Arbeitsgedächtnis - frontaler Kortex - funktionelle Konnektivität

Keywords

ADHD - functional magnetic resonance imaging - inhibition - working memory - frontal cortex - functional connectivity
 

  • Literatur

  • 1 Aron AR, Poldrack RA. The cognitive neuroscience of response inhibition: relevance for genetic research in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2005; 57: 1285-92.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Baddeley A. The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?. Trends Cogn Sci 2000; 04: 417-23.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Baddeley A. Working memory: looking back and looking forward. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2003; 04: 829-39.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Baddeley A, Della SSala. Working memory and executive control. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London. Series B: Biological Sciences 1996; 351 1397–403; discussion 403-4.
    Google Scholar
  • 5 Barkley R. Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol Bull 1997; 1221: 65-94.
    Google Scholar
  • 6 Barkley RA. Challenges in diagnosing adults with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2008; 69: e36.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Barkley RA. et al. The persistence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2002; 111: 279-89.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Berlin L, Bohlin G, Rydell AM. Relations between inhibition, executive functioning, and ADHD symptoms: a longitudinal study from age 5 to 8(1/2) years. Child Neuropsychol 2003; 09: 255-66.
    Google Scholar
  • 9 Biederman J. et al. Stability of executive function deficits in girls with ADHD: a prospective longitudinal followup study into adolescence. Dev Neuropsychol 2008; 33: 44-61.
    Google Scholar
  • 10 Biederman J. et al. Stability of executive function deficits into young adult years: a prospective longitudinal follow-up study of grown up males with ADHD. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2007; 116: 129-36.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Brocki K, Fan J, Fossella J. Placing neuroanatomical models of executive function in a developmental context: imaging and imaging--genetic strategies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2008; 1129: 246-55.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Brocki KC. et al. Working memory in school-aged children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder combined type: Are deficits modality specific and are they independent of impaired inhibitory control?. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2008; 1-11.
    Google Scholar
  • 13 Bush G. et al. Anterior cingulate cortex dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder revealed by fMRI and the Counting Stroop. Biological Psychiatry 1999; 45: 1542-52.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Bush G. et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of methylphenidate and placebo in attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder during the multisource interference task. Archives of General Psychiatry 2008; 65: 102-14.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Bush G, Valera EM, Seidman LJ. Functional neuroimaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review and suggested future directions. Biological Psychiatry 2005; 57: 1273-84.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Calhoun VD. et al. A method for making group inferences from functional MRI data using independent component analysis. Human Brain Mapping 2001; 14: 140-51.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Calhoun VD, Adali T, Pekar JJ. A method for comparing group fMRI data using independent component analysis: application to visual, motor and visuomotor tasks. Magn Reson Imaging 2004; 22: 1181-91.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Calhoun VD, Kiehl KA, Pearlson GD. Modulation of temporally coherent brain networks estimated using ICA at rest and during cognitive tasks. Human Brain Mapping 2008; 29: 828-38.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Casey BJ. et al. Frontostriatal connectivity and its role in cognitive control in parent-child dyads with ADHD. American Journal of Psychiatry 2007; 164: 1729-36.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Castellanos FX. et al. Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Jama 2002; 288: 1740-8.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Castellanos FX. et al. Characterizing cognition in ADHD: beyond executive dysfunction. Trends Cogn Sci 2006; 10: 117-23.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Castellanos FX, Tannock R. Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The search for endophenotypes. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2002; 03: 617-28.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Chamberlain SR. et al. Atomoxetine modulates right inferior frontal activation during inhibitory control: a pharmacological functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biological Psychiatry 2009; 65: 550-5.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Chhabildas N, Pennington BF, Willcutt EG. A comparison of the neuropsychological profiles of the DSM-IV subtypes of ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2001; 29: 529-40.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Clark L. et al. Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?. Biological Psychiatry 2007; 61: 1395-401.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Conners CK. Rating scales in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: use in assessment and treatment monitoring. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1998; 59: 24-30.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Courtney SM. et al. The role of prefrontal cortex in working memory: examining the contents of consciousness. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London. Series B: Biological Sciences 1998; 353: 1819-28.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Dibbets P. et al. Differences in feedback-and inhibition-related neural activity in adult ADHD. Brain Cogn 2009; 70: 73-83.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Dickstein SG. et al. The neural correlates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: an ALE metaanalysis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2006; 47: 1051-62.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Doyle AE. et al. Diagnostic efficiency of neuropsychological test scores for discriminating boys with and without attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2000; 68: 477-88.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Doyle AE. et al. Multivariate genomewide linkage scan of neurocognitive traits and ADHD symptoms: suggestive linkage to 3q13. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008; 147B: 1399-411.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Durston S. et al. Activation in ventral prefrontal cortex is sensitive to genetic vulnerability for attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2006; 60: 1062-70.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Durston S. et al. Differential patterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD. Biological Psychiatry 2003; 53: 871-8.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Epstein JN. et al. ADHD-and medication-related brain activation effects in concordantly affected parent-child dyads with ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2007; 48: 899-913.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Ernst M. et al. Reduced brain metabolism in hyperactive girls. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1994; 33: 858-68.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Esposito F. et al. Independent component model of the default-mode brain function: Assessing the impact of active thinking. Brain Res Bull 2006; 70: 263-69.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Faraone SV, Biederman J. Neurobiology of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 1998; 44: 951-58.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Faraone SV. et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: an overview. Biological Psychiatry 2000; 48: 9-20.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Faraone SV. et al. Psychiatric, neuropsychological, and psychosocial features of DSM-IV subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: results from a clinically referred sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1998; 37: 185-93.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Fassbender C, Schweitzer JB. Is there evidence for neural compensation in attention deficit hyperctivity disorder? A review of the functional neuroimaging literature. Clinical Psychology Review 2006; 26: 445-65.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Frazier TW, Demaree HA, Youngstrom EA. Metaanalysis of intellectual and neuropsychological test performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology 2004; 18: 543-55.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Friston KJ. et al. Statistical parametric maps in functional imaging: A general linear approach. Human Brain Mapping 1995; 02: 189-210.
    Google Scholar
  • 43 Goldman-Rakic PS. The prefrontal landscape: implications of functional architecture for understanding human mentation and the central executive. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London. Series B: Biological Sciences 1996; 351: 1445-53.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Hale ST. et al. Atypical brain activation during simple and complex levels of processing in adult ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders 2007. published online on May 9: doi:10.1177/1087054706294101.
    Google Scholar
  • 45 Hervey AS, Epstein JN, Curry JF. Neuropsychology of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 2004; 18: 485-503.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Hill JC, Schoener EP. Age-dependent decline of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 1996; 153: 1143-6.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Kim BN. et al. Methylphenidate increased regional cerebral blood flow in subjects with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Yonsei Med J 2001; 42: 19-29.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Klorman R. et al. Executive functioning deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are independent of oppositional defiant or reading disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38: 1148-55.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Langleben DD. et al. Effects of methylphenidate discontinuation on cerebral blood flow in prepubescent boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Nucl Med 2002; 43: 1624-9.
    Google Scholar
  • 50 Lansbergen MM, Kenemans JL, van Engeland H. Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology 2007; 21: 251-62.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Loo SK. et al. Cognitive functioning in affected sibling pairs with ADHD: familial clustering and dopamine genes. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2008; 49: 950-7.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Marchetta ND. et al. Interference control, working memory, concept shifting, and verbal fluency in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuropsychology 2008; 22: 74-84.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Martinussen R. et al. A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 44: 377-84.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Matochik JA. et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder after chronic stimulant treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 1994; 151: 658-64.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Matochik JA. et al. Effects of acute stimulant medication on cerebral metabolism in adults with hyperactivity. Neuropsychopharmacology 1993; 08: 377-86.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Mattes JA. The role of frontal lobe dysfunction in childhood hyperkinesis. Compr Psychiatry 1980; 21: 358-69.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Miller EK. The prefrontal cortex: complex neural properties for complex behavior. Neuron 1999; 22: 15-7.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Miller EK. The prefrontal cortex and cognitive control. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2000; 01: 59-65.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Milner B. Effects of different brain lesions on card sorting. Archives of Neurology 1963; 09: 90.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Miyake A, Shah NJ. Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control, Hrsg. Miyake A, Shah NJ. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1999
    Google Scholar
  • 61 Nigg JT. et al. Neuropsychological executive functions and DSM-IV ADHD subtypes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002; 41: 59-66.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Nijmeijer JS. et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and social dysfunctioning. Clin Psychol Rev 2008; 28: 692-708.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 O’Gorman RL. et al. Increased cerebral perfusion in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is normalised by stimulant treatment: a non-invasive MRI pilot study. NeuroImage 2008; 42: 36-41.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Owen AM. et al. N-back working memory paradigm: a meta-analysis of normative functional neuroimaging studies. Human Brain Mapping 2005; 25: 46-59.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Pennington BF, Ozonoff S. Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1996; 37: 51-87.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Polanczyk G. et al. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry 2007; 164: 942-8.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Rasmussen P, Gillberg C. Natural outcome of ADHD with developmental coordination disorder at age 22 years: a controlled, longitudinal, community-based study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2000; 39: 1424-31.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Renner TJ. et al. [Neurobiology of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]. Nervenarzt 2008; 79: 771-81.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Retz-Junginger P. et al. [Wender Utah rating scale. The short-version for the assessment of the attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults]. Nervenarzt 2002; 73: 830-8.
    Google Scholar
  • 70 Romine CB. et al. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test with children: a meta-analytic study of sensitivity and specificity. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2004; 19: 1027-41.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Rommelse NN. et al. Deficits in visuo-spatial working memory, inhibition and oculomotor control in boys with ADHD and their non-affected brothers. J Neural Transm 2008; 115: 249-60.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Rosler M. et al. [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Benchmarking diagnosis using the Wender-Reimherr adult rating scale]. Nervenarzt 2008; 79: 320-7.
    Google Scholar
  • 73 Rosler M. et al. [Tools for the diagnosis of attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults. Self-rating behaviour questionnaire and diagnostic checklist]. Nervenarzt 2004; 75: 888-95.
    Google Scholar
  • 74 Rosler M. et al. Psychopathological rating scales for diagnostic use in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 256: i3-11.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Roth RM, Saykin AJ. Executive dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: cognitive and neuroimaging findings. Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2004; 27: 83-96 ix.
    Google Scholar
  • 76 Rubia K. et al. Hypofrontality in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder during higher-order motor control: A study with functional MRI. American Journal of Psychiatry 1999; 156: 891-96.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Sambataro F. et al. Age-related alterations in default mode network: Impact on working memory performance. Neurobiol Aging. 2008 doi:10.1016/ j.neurobiolaging.2008.05.022.
    Google Scholar
  • 78 Schulz KP. et al. Response inhibition in adolescents diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during childhood: an event-related FMRI study. American Journal of Psychiatry 2004; 161: 1650-7.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Schulz KP. et al. Brain activation gradients in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex related to persistence of ADHD in adolescent boys. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 44: 47-54.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Schweitzer JB. et al. Alterations in the functional anatomy of working memory in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 2000; 157: 278-80.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Schweitzer JB. et al. A positron emission tomography study of methylphenidate in adults with ADHD: alterations in resting blood flow and predicting treatment response. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003; 28: 967-73.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Schweitzer JB. et al. Effect of methylphenidate on executive functioning in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: normalization of behavior but not related brain activity. Biological Psychiatry 2004; 56: 597-606.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Seidman LJ. Neuropsychological functioning in people with ADHD across the lifespan. Clin Psychol Rev 2006; 26: 466-85.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Seidman LJ. et al. Impact of gender and age on executive functioning: do girls and boys with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder differ neuropsychologically in preteen and teenage years?. Dev Neuropsychol 2005; 27: 79-105.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Seidman LJ. et al. Neuropsychological function in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 1998; 44: 260-8.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N. Structural brain imaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2005; 57: 1263-72.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Sergeant JA. et al. The top and the bottom of ADHD: a neuropsychological perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2003; 27: 583-92.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Sergeant JA, Geurts H, Oosterlaan J. How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?. Behavioural Brain Research 2002; 130: 3-28.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Shaw P. et al. Psychostimulant treatment and the developing cortex in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 2009; 166: 58-63.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Sobanski E, Alm B. [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. An overview]. Nervenarzt 2004; 75: 697-715.
    Google Scholar
  • 91 Sonuga-Barke EJ. Psychological heterogeneity in AD/HD – a dual pathway model of behaviour and cognition. Behavioural Brain Research 2002; 130: 29-36.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Sonuga-Barke EJ. et al. Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: nosologic and diagnostic implications. Child Adolesc Psychiatr. Clin N Am 2008; 17: 367-84 ix.
    Google Scholar
  • 93 Spencer T. et al. Adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a controversial diagnosis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1998; 59 Suppl (Suppl. 07) 59-68.
    Google Scholar
  • 94 Steinhausen HC. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in a life perspective. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2003; 107: 321-2.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Sternberg S. High-speed scanning in human memory. Science 1966; 153: 652-54.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Stroop JR. Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1935; 18: 643-62.
    Google Scholar
  • 97 Tamm L. et al. Event-related FMRI evidence of frontotemporal involvement in aberrant response inhibition and task switching in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004; 43: 1430-40.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Uddin LQ. et al. Network homogeneity reveals decreased integrity of default-mode network in ADHD. Journal of Neuroscience Methods 2008; 169: 249-54.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Valera EM. et al. Functional neuroanatomy of working memory in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry 2005; 57: 439-47.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Weiss G. et al. Psychiatric status of hyperactives as adults: a controlled prospective 15-year follow-up of 63 hyperactive children. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1985; 24: 211-20.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Willcutt EG. et al. Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry 2005; 57: 1336-46.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Wolf RC. et al. Regional brain activation changes and abnormal functional connectivity of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex during working memory processing in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Human Brain Mapping 2008; 30: 2252-2266.
    Google Scholar
  • 103 Wolf RC, Walter H. Evaluation of a novel event-related parametric fMRI paradigm investigating prefrontal function. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2005; 140: 73-83.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Young S. et al. Planning ability in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology 2007; 21: 581-9.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Zametkin AJ. et al. Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with hyperactivity of childhood onset. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 1361-6.
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar