Download PDF
Semin Neurol 2020; 40(06): 606-616
DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1718718
Review Article

Acute Seizures—Work-Up and Management in Children

Lubov Romantseva
1   Section of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
,
Nan Lin
1   Section of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Seizures are common in the pediatric population; however, most children do not go on to develop epilepsy later in life. Selecting appropriate diagnostic modalities to determine an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment as well as with counseling families regarding the etiology and prognosis of seizures, is essential. This article will review updated definitions of seizures, including provoked versus unprovoked, as well as the International League Against Epilepsy operational definition of epilepsy. A variety of specific acute symptomatic seizures requiring special consideration are discussed, along with neonatal seizures and seizure mimics, which are common in pediatric populations.

Keywords

acute symptomatic seizures - febrile seizures - neonatal seizures - PNES - seizure mimics


Publication History

Article published online:
05 November 2020

© 2020. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 Scheffer IE, Berkovic S, Capovilla G. et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: Position paper of the ILAE Commission for Classification and Terminology. Epilepsia 2017; 58 (04) 512-521
    Google Scholar
  • 2 Hauser WA, Beghi E. First seizure definitions and worldwide incidence and mortality. Epilepsia 2008; 49 (Suppl. 01) 8-12
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Hirtz D, Berg A, Bettis D. et al, Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology, Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Practice parameter: treatment of the child with a first unprovoked seizure: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Neurology 2003; 60 (02) 166-175
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Shinnar S, Berg AT, O'Dell C, Newstein D, Moshe SL, Hauser WA. Predictors of multiple seizures in a cohort of children prospectively followed from the time of their first unprovoked seizure. Ann Neurol 2000; 48 (02) 140-147
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Hauser WA, Rich SS, Lee JR, Annegers JF, Anderson VE. Risk of recurrent seizures after two unprovoked seizures. N Engl J Med 1998; 338 (07) 429-434
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Arts WFM, Geerts AT. When to start drug treatment for childhood epilepsy: the clinical-epidemiological evidence. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2009; 13 (02) 93-101
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Berg AT, Shinnar S. The risk of seizure recurrence following a first unprovoked seizure: a quantitative review. Neurology 1991; 41 (07) 965-972
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Stroink H, Brouwer OF, Arts WF, Geerts AT, Peters AC, van Donselaar CA. The first unprovoked, untreated seizure in childhood: a hospital based study of the accuracy of the diagnosis, rate of recurrence, and long term outcome after recurrence. Dutch study of epilepsy in childhood. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 64 (05) 595-600
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Beghi E, Carpio A, Forsgren L. et al. Recommendation for a definition of acute symptomatic seizure. Epilepsia 2010; 51 (04) 671-675
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Wyllie E. Wyllie's Treatment of Epilepsy: Principles and Practice. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger; 1993
    Google Scholar
  • 11 Hamiwka LD, Singh N, Niosi J, Wirrell EC. Diagnostic inaccuracy in children referred with “first seizure”: role for a first seizure clinic. Epilepsia 2007; 48 (06) 1062-1066
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Brigo F, Nardone R, Ausserer H. et al. The diagnostic value of urinary incontinence in the differential diagnosis of seizures. Seizure 2013; 22 (02) 85-90
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Brigo F, Storti M, Lochner P. et al. Tongue biting in epileptic seizures and psychogenic events: an evidence-based perspective. Epilepsy Behav 2012; 25 (02) 251-255
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Benbadis SR, Wolgamuth BR, Goren H, Brener S, Fouad-Tarazi F. Value of tongue biting in the diagnosis of seizures. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155 (21) 2346-2349
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Oliva M, Pattison C, Carino J, Roten A, Matkovic Z, O'Brien TJ. The diagnostic value of oral lacerations and incontinence during convulsive “seizures”. Epilepsia 2008; 49 (06) 962-967
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Rugg-Gunn FJ, Harrison NA, Duncan JS. Evaluation of the accuracy of seizure descriptions by the relatives of patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Res 2001; 43 (03) 193-199
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Hirtz D, Ashwal S, Berg A. et al. Practice parameter: evaluating a first nonfebrile seizure in children: report of the quality standards subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology, The Child Neurology Society, and The American Epilepsy Society. Neurology 2000; 55 (05) 616-623
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Harden CL, Huff JS, Schwartz TH. et al, Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Reassessment: neuroimaging in the emergency patient presenting with seizure (an evidence-based review): report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2007; 69 (18) 1772-1780
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Debicki DB. Electroencephalography after a single unprovoked seizure. Seizure 2017; 49: 69-73
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Winckler MIB, Rotta NT. Clinical and electroencephalographic follow-up after a first unprovoked seizure. Pediatr Neurol 2004; 30 (03) 201-206
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Kanemura H, Sano F, Ohyama T, Mizorogi S, Sugita K, Aihara M. EEG characteristics predict subsequent epilepsy in children with their first unprovoked seizure. Epilepsy Res 2015; 115: 58-62
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Shinnar S, Berg AT, Moshe SL, Shinnar R. How long do new-onset seizures in children last?. Ann Neurol 2001; 49 (05) 659-664
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Camfield P, Camfield C, Smith S, Dooley J, Smith E. Long-term outcome is unchanged by antiepileptic drug treatment after a first seizure: a 15-year follow-up from a randomized trial in childhood. Epilepsia 2002; 43 (06) 662-663
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Musicco M, Beghi E, Solari A, Viani F. First Seizure Trial Group (FIRST Group). Treatment of first tonic-clonic seizure does not improve the prognosis of epilepsy. Neurology 1997; 49 (04) 991-998
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Leone MA BE, Giussani G, Nevitt S, Marson A, Beghi E. Immediate antiepileptic drug treatment, versus placebo, deferred, or no treatment for first unprovoked seizure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 5 (05) CD007144
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Pereira C, Resende C, Fineza I, Robalo C. A 15-year follow-up of first unprovoked seizures: a prospective study of 200 children. Epileptic Disord 2014; 16 (01) 50-55
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Verity CM, Butler NR, Golding J. Febrile convulsions in a national cohort followed up from birth. I--Prevalence and recurrence in the first five years of life. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985; 290 (6478): 1307-1310
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Tsuboi T. Epidemiology of febrile and afebrile convulsions in children in Japan. Neurology 1984; 34 (02) 175-181
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Hackett R, Hackett L, Bhakta P. Febrile seizures in a south Indian district: incidence and associations. Dev Med Child Neurol 1997; 39 (06) 380-384
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Guidelines for epidemiologic studies on epilepsy. Commission on Epidemiology and Prognosis, International League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsia 1993; 34 (04) 592-596
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Epstein LG, Shinnar S, Hesdorffer DC. et al, FEBSTAT study team. Human herpesvirus 6 and 7 in febrile status epilepticus: the FEBSTAT study. Epilepsia 2012; 53 (09) 1481-1488
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Shirts SB, Kurland LT. Factors prognostic of unprovoked seizures after febrile convulsions. N Engl J Med 1987; 316 (09) 493-498
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Nelson KB, Ellenberg JH. Predictors of epilepsy in children who have experienced febrile seizures. N Engl J Med 1976; 295 (19) 1029-1033
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Scheffer IE, Berkovic SF. Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus. A genetic disorder with heterogeneous clinical phenotypes. Brain 1997; 120 (Pt 3): 479-490
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Poduri A, Lowenstein D. Epilepsy genetics--past, present, and future. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2011; 21 (03) 325-332
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Shi Y-W, Yu M-J, Long Y-S. et al. Mosaic SCN1A mutations in familial partial epilepsy with antecedent febrile seizures. Genes Brain Behav 2012; 11 (02) 170-176
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Berg AT, Shinnar S, Darefsky AS. et al. Predictors of recurrent febrile seizures. A prospective cohort study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1997; 151 (04) 371-378
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Lewis DV, Shinnar S, Hesdorffer DC. et al, FEBSTAT Study Team. Hippocampal sclerosis after febrile status epilepticus: the FEBSTAT study. Ann Neurol 2014; 75 (02) 178-185
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Shinnar S, Bello JA, Chan S. et al, FEBSTAT Study Team. MRI abnormalities following febrile status epilepticus in children: the FEBSTAT study. Neurology 2012; 79 (09) 871-877
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 McClelland AC, Gomes WA, Shinnar S. et al, FEBSTAT Study Team. Quantitative evaluation of medial temporal lobe morphology in children with febrile status epilepticus: results of the FEBSTAT study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2016; 37 (12) 2356-2362
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Subcommittee on Febrile Seizures, American Academy of Pediatrics. Neurodiagnostic evaluation of the child with a simple febrile seizure. Pediatrics 2011; 127 (02) 389-394
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Nelson KB, Ellenberg JH. Prenatal and perinatal antecedents of febrile seizures. Ann Neurol 1990; 27 (02) 127-131
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Verity CM, Greenwood R, Golding J. Long-term intellectual and behavioral outcomes of children with febrile convulsions. N Engl J Med 1998; 338 (24) 1723-1728
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Ellenberg JH, Nelson KB. Febrile seizures and later intellectual performance. Arch Neurol 1978; 35 (01) 17-21
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Burroughs ZT, Mitchell MS, Hiestand B, Winslow J. Prehospital care of pediatric hypoglycemic seizure patients in the state of North Carolina: a retrospective cohort study. Acad Emerg Med 2019; 26 (12) 1379-1383
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Remick K, Redgate C, Ostermayer D, Kaji AH, Gausche-Hill M. Prehospital glucose testing for children with seizures: a proposed change in management. Prehosp Emerg Care 2017; 21 (02) 216-221
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Arhan E, Öztürk Z, Serdaroğlu A, Aydın K, Hirfanoğlu T, Akbaş Y. Neonatal hypoglycemia: a wide range of electroclinical manifestations and seizure outcomes. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2017; 21 (05) 738-744
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Fong CY, Harvey AS. Variable outcome for epilepsy after neonatal hypoglycaemia. Dev Med Child Neurol 2014; 56 (11) 1093-1099
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Farrar HC, Chande VT, Fitzpatrick DF, Shema SJ. Hyponatremia as the cause of seizures in infants: a retrospective analysis of incidence, severity, and clinical predictors. Ann Emerg Med 1995; 26 (01) 42-48
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Sharf RE. Seizure from hyponatremia in infants. Early recognition and treatment. Arch Fam Med 1993; 2 (06) 647-652
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Nardone R, Brigo F, Trinka E. Acute symptomatic seizures caused by electrolyte disturbances. J Clin Neurol 2016; 12 (01) 21-33
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Kunze K. Metabolic encephalopathies. J Neurol 2002; 249 (09) 1150-1159
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Agrawal N, Johnston SC, Wu YW, Sidney S, Fullerton HJ. Imaging data reveal a higher pediatric stroke incidence than prior US estimates. Stroke 2009; 40 (11) 3415-3421
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Mallick AA, Ganesan V, Kirkham FJ. et al. Childhood arterial ischaemic stroke incidence, presenting features, and risk factors: a prospective population-based study. Lancet Neurol 2014; 13 (01) 35-43
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Fox CK, Glass HC, Sidney S, Lowenstein DH, Fullerton HJ. Acute seizures predict epilepsy after childhood stroke. Ann Neurol 2013; 74 (02) 249-256
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Billinghurst LL, Beslow LA, Abend NS. et al. Incidence and predictors of epilepsy after pediatric arterial ischemic stroke. Neurology 2017; 88 (07) 630-637
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Hsu CJ, Weng WC, Peng SSF, Lee WT. Early-onset seizures are correlated with late-onset seizures in children with arterial ischemic stroke. Stroke 2014; 45 (04) 1161-1163
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Carvalho KS, Bodensteiner JB, Connolly PJ, Garg BP. Cerebral venous thrombosis in children. J Child Neurol 2001; 16 (08) 574-580
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Fitzgerald KC, Williams LS, Garg BP, Carvalho KS, Golomb MR. Cerebral sinovenous thrombosis in the neonate. Arch Neurol 2006; 63 (03) 405-409
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Filippidis A, Kapsalaki E, Patramani G, Fountas KN. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis: review of the demographics, pathophysiology, current diagnosis, and treatment. Neurosurg Focus 2009; 27 (05) E3
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Skeik N, Stark MM, Tubman DE. Complicated cerebral venous sinus thrombosis with intracranial hemorrhage and mastoiditis. Vasc Endovascular Surg 2012; 46 (07) 585-590
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Beghi E, D'Alessandro R, Beretta S. Epistroke Group. Incidence and predictors of acute symptomatic seizures after stroke. Neurology 2011; 77 (20) 1785-1793
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Bennett KS, DeWitt PE, Harlaar N, Bennett TD. Seizures in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2017; 18 (01) 54-63
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Gallentine WB. Utility of continuous EEG in children with acute traumatic brain injury. J Clin Neurophysiol 2013; 30 (02) 126-133
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Arango JI, Deibert CP, Brown D, Bell M, Dvorchik I, Adelson PD. Posttraumatic seizures in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv Syst 2012; 28 (11) 1925-1929
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Liesemer K, Bratton SL, Zebrack CM, Brockmeyer D, Statler KD. Early post-traumatic seizures in moderate to severe pediatric traumatic brain injury: rates, risk factors, and clinical features. J Neurotrauma 2011; 28 (05) 755-762
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Chung MG, O'Brien NF. Prevalence of early posttraumatic seizures in children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury despite levetiracetam prophylaxis. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2016; 17 (02) 150-156
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 O'Neill BR, Handler MH, Tong S, Chapman KE. Incidence of seizures on continuous EEG monitoring following traumatic brain injury in children. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2015; 16 (02) 167-176
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Arndt DH, Goodkin HP, Giza CC. Early posttraumatic seizures in the pediatric population. J Child Neurol 2016; 31 (01) 46-56
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Adelson PD, Bratton SL, Carney NA. et al, American Association for Surgery of Trauma, Child Neurology Society, International Society for Pediatric Neurosurgery, International Trauma Anesthesia and Critical Care Society, Society of Critical Care Medicine, World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies. Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children, and adolescents. Chapter 19. The role of anti-seizure prophylaxis following severe pediatric traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2003; 4 (03) S72-S75
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Young KD, Okada PJ, Sokolove PE. et al. A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of phenytoin for the prevention of early posttraumatic seizures in children with moderate to severe blunt head injury. Ann Emerg Med 2004; 43 (04) 435-446
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Gable MS, Sheriff H, Dalmau J, Tilley DH, Glaser CA. The frequency of autoimmune N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis surpasses that of individual viral etiologies in young individuals enrolled in the California Encephalitis Project. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54 (07) 899-904
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Tekin HG, Gökben S, Serdaroğlu G. Extreme delta brush activity: could it be a marker for early diagnosis and prognosis of anti- NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) encephalitis?. Turk Pediatri Ars 2019; 54 (01) 61-65
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Florance NR, Davis RL, Lam C. et al. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis in children and adolescents. Ann Neurol 2009; 66 (01) 11-18
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Dalmau J, Armangué T, Planagumà J. et al. An update on anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis for neurologists and psychiatrists: mechanisms and models. Lancet Neurol 2019; 18 (11) 1045-1057
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Mackie FE, Kainer G, Adib N. et al. The national incidence and clinical picture of SLE in children in Australia - a report from the Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit. Lupus 2015; 24 (01) 66-73
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Rosati A, Guerrini R, Cimaz R. Lupus, antiphospholipid syndrome and epilepsy: an update. Lupus 2017; 26 (01) 3-5
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Andrade RM, Alarcón GS, González LA. et al, LUMINA Study Group. Seizures in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: data from LUMINA, a multiethnic cohort (LUMINA LIV). Ann Rheum Dis 2008; 67 (06) 829-834
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Bahi-Buisson N, Dulac O. Pediatric neurology, Part I. In: Dulac O, Lassonde M, Sarnat HB. eds. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Edinburgh: Elsevier Inc; 2013: 533-543
    CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Sharma S, Prasad AN. Inborn errors of metabolism and epilepsy: current understanding, diagnosis, and treatment approaches. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18 (07) 1-26
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Campistol J, Plecko B. Treatable newborn and infant seizures due to inborn errors of metabolism. Epileptic Disord 2015; 17 (03) 229-242
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Kwon JM. Testing for inborn errors of metabolism. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2018; 24 (01) Child Neurology 37-56
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 van Karnebeek CDM, Stockler S. Treatable inborn errors of metabolism causing intellectual disability: a systematic literature review. Mol Genet Metab 2012; 105 (03) 368-381
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Glass HC. Neonatal seizures: advances in mechanisms and management. Clin Perinatol 2014; 41 (01) 177-190
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Glass HC, Pham TN, Danielsen B, Towner D, Glidden D, Wu YW. Antenatal and intrapartum risk factors for seizures in term newborns: a population-based study, California 1998-2002. J Pediatr 2009; 154 (01) 24-28.e1
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Ronen GM, Penney S, Andrews W. The epidemiology of clinical neonatal seizures in Newfoundland: a population-based study. J Pediatr 1999; 134 (01) 71-75
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Saliba RM, Annegers JF, Waller DK, Tyson JE, Mizrahi EM. Incidence of neonatal seizures in Harris County, Texas, 1992-1994. Am J Epidemiol 1999; 150 (07) 763-769
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Kwon JM, Guillet R, Shankaran S. et al, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. Clinical seizures in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy have no independent impact on neurodevelopmental outcome: secondary analyses of data from the neonatal research network hypothermia trial. J Child Neurol 2011; 26 (03) 322-328
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Glass HC, Ferriero DM, Miller SP. Correspondence on “clinical seizures in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy have no independent impact on neurodevelopmental outcome: secondary analyses of data from the neonatal research network hypothermia trial”. J Child Neurol 2011; 26 (04) 532 , author reply 533–534
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Glass HC, Kan J, Bonifacio SL, Ferriero DM. Neonatal seizures: treatment practices among term and preterm infants. Pediatr Neurol 2012; 46 (02) 111-115
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Murray DM, Boylan GB, Ali I, Ryan CA, Murphy BP, Connolly S. Defining the gap between electrographic seizure burden, clinical expression and staff recognition of neonatal seizures. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2008; 93 (03) F187-F191
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Malone A, Ryan CA, Fitzgerald A, Burgoyne L, Connolly S, Boylan GB. Interobserver agreement in neonatal seizure identification. Epilepsia 2009; 50 (09) 2097-2101
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Mizrahi EM, Kellaway P. Characterization and classification of neonatal seizures. Neurology 1987; 37 (12) 1837-1844
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Scher MS, Alvin J, Gaus L, Minnigh B, Painter MJ. Uncoupling of EEG-clinical neonatal seizures after antiepileptic drug use. Pediatr Neurol 2003; 28 (04) 277-280
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Connell J, Oozeer R, de Vries L, Dubowitz LMS, Dubowitz V. Clinical and EEG response to anticonvulsants in neonatal seizures. Arch Dis Child 1989; 64 (4 Spec No): 459-464
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Shellhaas RA, Chang T, Tsuchida T. et al. The American Clinical Neurophysiology Society's guideline on continuous electroencephalography monitoring in neonates. J Clin Neurophysiol 2011; 28 (06) 611-617
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Hellström-Westas L. Amplitude-integrated electroencephalography for seizure detection in newborn infants. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2018; 23 (03) 175-182
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Rakshasbhuvankar A, Paul S, Nagarajan L, Ghosh S, Rao S. Amplitude-integrated EEG for detection of neonatal seizures: a systematic review. Seizure 2015; 33: 90-98
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Wusthoff CJ. Diagnosing neonatal seizures and status epilepticus. J Clin Neurophysiol 2013; 30 (02) 115-121
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Massey SL, Jensen FE, Abend NS. Electroencephalographic monitoring for seizure identification and prognosis in term neonates. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2018; 23 (03) 168-174
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Shellhaas RA, Clancy RR. Characterization of neonatal seizures by conventional EEG and single-channel EEG. Clin Neurophysiol 2007; 118 (10) 2156-2161
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 102 Vasudevan C, Levene M. Epidemiology and aetiology of neonatal seizures. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2013; 18 (04) 185-191
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Shellhaas RA, Wusthoff CJ, Tsuchida TN. et al, Neonatal Seizure Registry. Profile of neonatal epilepsies: characteristics of a prospective US cohort. Neurology 2017; 89 (09) 893-899
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Evans DJ, Levene M, Tsakmakis M. Anticonvulsants for preventing mortality and morbidity in full term newborns with perinatal asphyxia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 18 (03) CD001240
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Young L, Berg M, Soll R. Prophylactic barbiturate use for the prevention of morbidity and mortality following perinatal asphyxia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 5 (05) CD001240
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 McHugh DC, Lancaster S, Manganas LN. A systematic review of the efficacy of levetiracetam in neonatal seizures. Neuropediatrics 2018; 49 (01) 12-17
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Favrais G, Ursino M, Mouchel C. et al. Levetiracetam optimal dose-finding as first-line treatment for neonatal seizures occurring in the context of hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy (LEVNEONAT-1): study protocol of a phase II trial. BMJ Open 2019; 9 (01) e022739
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Rao LM, Hussain SA, Zaki T. et al. A comparison of levetiracetam and phenobarbital for the treatment of neonatal seizures associated with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Epilepsy Behav 2018; 88: 212-217
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Venkatesan C, Young S, Schapiro M, Thomas C. Levetiracetam for the treatment of seizures in neonatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy. J Child Neurol 2017; 32 (02) 210-214
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Obeid M, Mikati MA. Expanding spectrum of paroxysmal events in children: potential mimickers of epilepsy. Pediatr Neurol 2007; 37 (05) 309-316
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Rothner AD. ‘Not everything that shakes is epilepsy’. The differential diagnosis of paroxysmal nonepileptiform disorders. Cleve Clin J Med 1989; 56 (Suppl Pt 2): S206-S213
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Moe PG, Nellhaus G. Infantile polymyoclonia-opsoclonus syndrome and neural crest tumors. Neurology 1970; 20 (08) 756-764
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Andermann F, Andermann E. Startle disorders of man: hyperekplexia, jumping and startle epilepsy. Brain Dev 1988; 10 (04) 213-222
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 King RA, Nelson LB, Wagner RS. Spasmus nutans. A benign clinical entity?. Arch Ophthalmol 1986; 104 (10) 1501-1504
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Pritchard JM, Hopp JL. Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures. J Clin Outcomes Manag 2014; 21 (06) 271-279
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Pisani F, Oteri G, Costa C, Di Raimondo G, Di Perri R. Effects of psychotropic drugs on seizure threshold. Drug Saf 2002; 25 (02) 91-110
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Cock HR. Drug-induced status epilepticus. Epilepsy Behav 2015; 49: 76-82
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Vaidya PH. Drugs implicated in seizures and its management. J Pharmacol Clin Res 2017; 3 (02) 1-6
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar