Download PDF
Semin Neurol 2020; 40(06): 696-707
DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1719072
Review Article

Surgical Treatments of Epilepsy

Shahjehan Ahmad
1   Department of Neurosurgery, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
,
Ryan Khanna
1   Department of Neurosurgery, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
,
Sepehr Sani 
1   Department of Neurosurgery, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Nearly 30% of epilepsy patients are refractory to medical therapy. Surgical management of epilepsy is an increasingly viable option for these patients. Although surgery has historically been used as a palliative option, improvements in technology and outcomes show its potential in certain subsets of patients. This article reviews the two main categories of surgical epilepsy treatment—resective surgery and neuromodulation. Resective surgery includes temporal lobe resections, extratemporal resections, laser interstitial thermal therapy, and disconnection procedures. We discuss the three main types of neuromodulation—vagal nerve stimulation, responsive neurostimulation, and deep brain stimulation for epilepsy. The history and indications are explored for each type of treatment. Given the myriad types of resection and neuromodulation techniques, patient selection is reviewed in detail, with a discussion on which patients are most likely to benefit from different treatment strategies. We also discuss outcomes with examples of the pertinent landmark trials and their results. Finally, complications and surgical technique are reviewed. As new indications emerge and patient selection is refined, surgical management will continue to evolve as an adjuvant therapy for epileptic patients.

Keywords

epilepsy surgery - resection - neuromodulation


Publication History

Article published online:
11 November 2020

© 2020. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 Fiest KM, Sauro KM, Wiebe S. et al. Prevalence and incidence of epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of international studies. Neurology 2017; 88 (03) 296-303
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 West S, Nevitt SJ, Cotton J. et al. Surgery for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019; 6: CD010541
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Winn HR, Youmans JR. Youmans Neurological Surgery. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: W.B Saunders; 2004. . (lxiv, 5296, cviii) ill. (some col.) 5228 cm. + 5291 CD-ROM (5294 5293/5294 in.)
    Google Scholar
  • 4 Callaghan BC, Anand K, Hesdorffer D, Hauser WA, French JA. Likelihood of seizure remission in an adult population with refractory epilepsy. Ann Neurol 2007; 62 (04) 382-389
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Englot DJ, Birk H, Chang EF. Seizure outcomes in nonresective epilepsy surgery: an update. Neurosurg Rev 2017; 40 (02) 181-194
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Asadi-Pooya AA, Rostami C. History of surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2017; 70 (Pt A): 57-60
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Moran NF. A more balanced and inclusive view of the history of temporal lobectomy. Epilepsia 2008; 49 (03) 543-544
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Penfield W, Flanigin H. Surgical therapy of temporal lobe seizures. AMA Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1950; 64 (04) 491-500
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Bailey P, Gibbs FA. The surgical treatment of psychomotor epilepsy. J Am Med Assoc 1951; 145 (06) 365-370
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Kwan P, Brodie MJ. Early identification of refractory epilepsy. N Engl J Med 2000; 342 (05) 314-319
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 Kwan P, Arzimanoglou A, Berg AT. et al. Definition of drug resistant epilepsy: consensus proposal by the ad hoc Task Force of the ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia 2010; 51 (06) 1069-1077
    Google Scholar
  • 12 Engel Jr J, McDermott MP, Wiebe S. Early Randomized Surgical Epilepsy Trial (ERSET) Study Group. et al. Early surgical therapy for drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy: a randomized trial. JAMA 2012; 307 (09) 922-930
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Thom M. Review: Hippocampal sclerosis in epilepsy: a neuropathology review. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2014; 40 (05) 520-543
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Blümcke I, Thom M, Aronica E. et al. International consensus classification of hippocampal sclerosis in temporal lobe epilepsy: a Task Force report from the ILAE Commission on Diagnostic Methods. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (07) 1315-1329
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 No YJ, Zavanone C, Bielle F. et al. Medial temporal lobe epilepsy associated with hippocampal sclerosis is a distinctive syndrome. J Neurol 2017; 264 (05) 875-881
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Gataullina S, Dulac O, Bulteau C. Temporal lobe epilepsy in infants and children. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2015; 171 (03) 252-258
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Josephson CB, Rosenow F, Al-Shahi Salman R. Intracranial vascular malformations and epilepsy. Semin Neurol 2015; 35 (03) 223-234
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 West S, Nolan SJ, Cotton J. et al. Surgery for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (07) CD010541
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Miller JW, Hakimian S. Surgical treatment of epilepsy. Continuum (Minneap Minn) 2013; 19 (3 Epilepsy): 730-742
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Smith AP, Sani S, Kanner AM. et al. Medically intractable temporal lobe epilepsy in patients with normal MRI: surgical outcome in twenty-one consecutive patients. Seizure 2011; 20 (06) 475-479
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Boling WW. Surgical considerations of intractable mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Brain Sci 2018; 8 (02) E35
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Wieser HG. ILAE Commission on Neurosurgery of Epilepsy. ILAE Commission Report. Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis. Epilepsia 2004; 45 (06) 695-714
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Goldenholz DM, Jow A, Khan OI. et al. Preoperative prediction of temporal lobe epilepsy surgery outcome. Epilepsy Res 2016; 127: 331-338
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Allone C, Lo Buono V, Corallo F. et al. Neuroimaging and cognitive functions in temporal lobe epilepsy: a review of the literature. J Neurol Sci 2017; 381: 7-15
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Duncan JS. Imaging in the surgical treatment of epilepsy. Nat Rev Neurol 2010; 6 (10) 537-550
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Osipowicz K, Sperling MR, Sharan AD, Tracy JI. Functional MRI, resting state fMRI, and DTI for predicting verbal fluency outcome following resective surgery for temporal lobe epilepsy. J Neurosurg 2016; 124 (04) 929-937
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Chan AY, Kharrat S, Lundeen K. et al. Length of stay for patients undergoing invasive electrode monitoring with stereoelectroencephalography and subdural grids correlates positively with increased institutional profitability. Epilepsia 2017; 58 (06) 1023-1026
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Iwasaki M, Jin K, Nakasato N, Tominaga T. Non-invasive evaluation for epilepsy surgery. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2016; 56 (10) 632-640
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Barnett GH, Burgess RC, Awad IA, Skipper GJ, Edwards CR, Luders H. Epidural peg electrodes for the presurgical evaluation of intractable epilepsy. Neurosurgery 1990; 27 (01) 113-115
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Bingaman WE, Bulacio J. Placement of subdural grids in pediatric patients: technique and results. Childs Nerv Syst 2014; 30 (11) 1897-1904
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Valentín A, Hernando-Quintana N, Moles-Herbera J. et al. Depth versus subdural temporal electrodes revisited: Impact on surgical outcome after resective surgery for epilepsy. Clin Neurophysiol 2017; 128 (03) 418-423
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Chang EF, Englot DJ, Vadera S. Minimally invasive surgical approaches for temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2015; 47: 24-33
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Hoyt AT, Smith KA. Selective Amygdalohippocampectomy. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2016; 27 (01) 1-17
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Alonso Vanegas MA, Lew SM, Morino M, Sarmento SA. Microsurgical techniques in temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2017; 58 (Suppl. 01) 10-18
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Schaller K, Cabrilo I. Anterior temporal lobectomy. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2016; 158 (01) 161-166
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Ghizoni E, Almeida JP, Joaquim AF. et al. Modified anterior temporal lobectomy: anatomical landmarks and operative technique. J Neurol Surg A Cent Eur Neurosurg 2015; 76 (05) 407-414
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Tan LA, Byrne RW. Anterior temporal sulcus: a reliable intraoperative landmark for accurately delineating the superior limit of amygdala resection during anterior temporal lobectomy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2015; 93 (05) 360-365
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Spencer D, Burchiel K. Selective amygdalohippocampectomy. Epilepsy Res Treat 2012; 2012: 382095
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Yang PF, Zhang HJ, Pei JS. et al. Neuropsychological outcomes of subtemporal selective amygdalohippocampectomy via a small craniotomy. J Neurosurg 2016; 125 (01) 67-74
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Silbergeld DL, Ojemann GA. The tailored temporal lobectomy. Neurosurg Clin N Am 1993; 4 (02) 273-281
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Mikula AL, ReFaey K, Grewal SS, Britton JW, Van Gompel JJ. Medial temporal encephalocele and medically intractable epilepsy: a tailored inferior temporal lobectomy and case report. Oper Neurosurg (Hagerstown) 2020; 18 (01) E19-E22
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Qiu B, Ou S, Song T. et al. Intraoperative electrocorticography-guided microsurgical management for patients with onset of supratentorial neoplasms manifesting as epilepsy: a review of 65 cases. Epileptic Disord 2014; 16 (02) 175-184
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Tandon N, Esquenazi Y. Resection strategies in tumoral epilepsy: is a lesionectomy enough?. Epilepsia 2013; 54 (Suppl. 09) 72-78
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Bannout F, Harder S, Lee M. et al. Epilepsy Surgery for Skull-Base Temporal Lobe Encephaloceles: Should We Spare the Hippocampus from Resection?. Brain Sci 2018; 8 (Suppl. 03) 42
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 45 Yang T, Hakimian S, Schwartz TH. Intraoperative ElectroCorticoGraphy (ECog): indications, techniques, and utility in epilepsy surgery. Epileptic Disord 2014; 16 (03) 271-279
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Wiebe S, Blume WT, Girvin JP, Eliasziw M. Effectiveness and Efficiency of Surgery for Temporal Lobe Epilepsy Study Group. A randomized, controlled trial of surgery for temporal-lobe epilepsy. N Engl J Med 2001; 345 (05) 311-318
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 Spencer S, Huh L. Outcomes of epilepsy surgery in adults and children. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7 (06) 525-537
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Téllez-Zenteno JF, Dhar R, Wiebe S. Long-term seizure outcomes following epilepsy surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain 2005; 128 (Pt 5): 1188-1198
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Jobst BC, Cascino GD. Resective epilepsy surgery for drug-resistant focal epilepsy: a review. JAMA 2015; 313 (03) 285-293
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Galovic M, Baudracco I, Wright-Goff E. et al. Association of piriform cortex resection with surgical outcomes in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. JAMA Neurol 2019; 76 (06) 690-700
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Josephson CB, Dykeman J, Fiest KM. et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of standard vs selective temporal lobe epilepsy surgery. Neurology 2013; 80 (18) 1669-1676
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Falowski SM, Wallace D, Kanner A. et al. Tailored temporal lobectomy for medically intractable epilepsy: evaluation of pathology and predictors of outcome. Neurosurgery 2012; 71 (03) 703-709 , discussion 709
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Kerezoudis P, McCutcheon B, Murphy ME. et al. Thirty-day postoperative morbidity and mortality after temporal lobectomy for medically refractory epilepsy. J Neurosurg 2018; 128 (04) 1158-1164
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Brotis AG, Giannis T, Kapsalaki E, Dardiotis E, Fountas KN. Complications after Anterior Temporal Lobectomy for Medically Intractable Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2019; 97 (02) 69-82
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Tebo CC, Evins AI, Christos PJ, Kwon J, Schwartz TH. Evolution of cranial epilepsy surgery complication rates: a 32-year systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurosurg 2014; 120 (06) 1415-1427
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Sherman EM, Wiebe S, Fay-McClymont TB. et al. Neuropsychological outcomes after epilepsy surgery: systematic review and pooled estimates. Epilepsia 2011; 52 (05) 857-869
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 Helmstaedter C, Reuber M, Elger CC. Interaction of cognitive aging and memory deficits related to epilepsy surgery. Ann Neurol 2002; 52 (01) 89-94
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Wolf RL, Ivnik RJ, Hirschorn KA, Sharbrough FW, Cascino GD, Marsh WR. Neurocognitive efficiency following left temporal lobectomy: standard versus limited resection. J Neurosurg 1993; 79 (01) 76-83
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Tanriverdi T, Dudley RW, Hasan A. et al. Memory outcome after temporal lobe epilepsy surgery: corticoamygdalohippocampectomy versus selective amygdalohippocampectomy. J Neurosurg 2010; 113 (06) 1164-1175
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Ramey WL, Martirosyan NL, Lieu CM, Hasham HA, Lemole Jr GM, Weinand ME. Current management and surgical outcomes of medically intractable epilepsy. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2013; 115 (12) 2411-2418
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Knerlich-Lukoschus F, Connolly MB, Hendson G, Steinbok P, Dunham C. Clinical, imaging, and immunohistochemical characteristics of focal cortical dysplasia Type II extratemporal epilepsies in children: analyses of an institutional case series. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2017; 19 (02) 182-195
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Giulioni M, Marucci G, Pelliccia V. et al. Commission for Epilepsy Surgery of the Italian League Against Epilepsy. Epilepsy surgery of “low grade epilepsy associated neuroepithelial tumors”: a retrospective nationwide Italian study. Epilepsia 2017; 58 (11) 1832-1841
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Pitkänen A, Roivainen R, Lukasiuk K. Development of epilepsy after ischaemic stroke. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15 (02) 185-197
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Blount JP. Extratemporal resections in pediatric epilepsy surgery-an overview. Epilepsia 2017; 58 (Suppl. 01) 19-27
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Busch RM, Floden DP, Ferguson L. et al. Neuropsychological outcome following frontal lobectomy for pharmacoresistant epilepsy in adults. Neurology 2017; 88 (07) 692-700
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Englot DJ, Wang DD, Rolston JD, Shih TT, Chang EF. Rates and predictors of long-term seizure freedom after frontal lobe epilepsy surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurosurg 2012; 116 (05) 1042-1048
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Noe K, Sulc V, Wong-Kisiel L. et al. Long-term outcomes after nonlesional extratemporal lobe epilepsy surgery. JAMA Neurol 2013; 70 (08) 1003-1008
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 Cascino GD. Surgical treatment for extratemporal epilepsy. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2004; 6 (03) 257-262
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Wicks RT, Jermakowicz WJ, Jagid JR. et al. Laser interstitial thermal therapy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosurgery 2016; 79 (Suppl. 01) S83-S91
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Bown SG. Phototherapy in tumors. World J Surg 1983; 7 (06) 700-709
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Sugiyama K, Sakai T, Fujishima I, Ryu H, Uemura K, Yokoyama T. Stereotactic interstitial laser-hyperthermia using Nd-YAG laser. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 1990; 54-55: 501-505
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Curry DJ, Gowda A, McNichols RJ, Wilfong AA. MR-guided stereotactic laser ablation of epileptogenic foci in children. Epilepsy Behav 2012; 24 (04) 408-414
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Gross RE, Stern MA, Willie JT. et al. Stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampotomy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Ann Neurol 2018; 83 (03) 575-587
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Grewal SS, Tatum WO. Laser thermal ablation in epilepsy. Expert Rev Neurother 2019; 19 (12) 1211-1218
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 75 Xue F, Chen T, Sun H. Postoperative outcomes of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy (LITT) in the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Monit 2018; 24: 9292-9299
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 King-Stephens D. What is the best target for ablation of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy?. Epilepsy Curr 2019; 19 (05) 313-315
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 LaRiviere MJ, Gross RE. Stereotactic laser ablation for medically intractable epilepsy: the next generation of minimally invasive epilepsy surgery. Front Surg 2016; 3: 64
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Le S, Ho AL, Fisher RS. et al. Laser interstitial thermal therapy (LITT): seizure outcomes for refractory mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2018; 89: 37-41
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Xu DS, Chen T, Hlubek RJ. et al. Magnetic resonance imaging-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy for the treatment of hypothalamic hamartomas: a retrospective review. Neurosurgery 2018; 83 (06) 1183-1192
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Ellis JA, Mejia Munne JC, Wang SH. et al. Staged laser interstitial thermal therapy and topectomy for complete obliteration of complex focal cortical dysplasias. J Clin Neurosci 2016; 31: 224-228
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Hooten KG, Werner K, Mikati MA, Muh CR. MRI-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy in an infant with tuberous sclerosis: technical case report. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2018; 23 (01) 92-97
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Hoppe C, Witt JA, Helmstaedter C, Gasser T, Vatter H, Elger CE. Laser interstitial thermotherapy (LiTT) in epilepsy surgery. Seizure 2017; 48: 45-52
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Dadey DY, Kamath AA, Leuthardt EC, Smyth MD. Laser interstitial thermal therapy for subependymal giant cell astrocytoma: technical case report. Neurosurg Focus 2016; 41 (04) E9
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Ho AL, Miller KJ, Cartmell S, Inoyama K, Fisher RS, Halpern CH. Stereotactic laser ablation of the splenium for intractable epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav Case Rep 2016; 5: 23-26
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Lee EJ, Kalia SK, Hong SH. A primer on magnetic resonance-guided laser interstitial thermal therapy for medically refractory epilepsy. J Korean Neurosurg Soc 2019; 62 (03) 353-360
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Gross RE, Willie JT, Drane DL. The role of stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampotomy in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2016; 27 (01) 37-50
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Englot DJ. A modern epilepsy surgery treatment algorithm: Incorporating traditional and emerging technologies. Epilepsy Behav 2018; 80: 68-74
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Bezchlibnyk YB, Willie JT, Gross RE. A neurosurgeon's view: laser interstitial thermal therapy of mesial temporal lobe structures. Epilepsy Res 2018; 142: 135-139
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Wu C, Jermakowicz WJ, Chakravorti S. et al. Effects of surgical targeting in laser interstitial thermal therapy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: A multicenter study of 234 patients. Epilepsia 2019; 60 (06) 1171-1183
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Willie JT, Laxpati NG, Drane DL. et al. Real-time magnetic resonance-guided stereotactic laser amygdalohippocampotomy for mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurosurgery 2014; 74 (06) 569-584 , discussion 584–585
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Sperry RW, Miner N. Pattern perception following insertion of mica plates into visual cortex. J Comp Physiol Psychol 1955; 48 (06) 463-469
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Morrell F, Whisler WW, Bleck TP. Multiple subpial transection: a new approach to the surgical treatment of focal epilepsy. J Neurosurg 1989; 70 (02) 231-239
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Finet P, Santos LP, El Tahry R, Santos SF, Vaz GR, Raftopoulos C. Clinical outcome of radiating multiple subpial transections alone for drug resistant epilepsy after more than 5 years follow-up. World Neurosurg 2019; 126 (Mar): e1155-e1159
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Rolston JD, Deng H, Wang DD, Englot DJ, Chang EF. Multiple subpial transections for medically refractory epilepsy: a disaggregated review of patient-level data. Neurosurgery 2018; 82 (05) 613-620
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Graham D, Gill D, Dale RC, Tisdall MM. Corpus Callosotomy Outcomes Study Group. Seizure outcome after corpus callosotomy in a large paediatric series. Dev Med Child Neurol 2018; 60 (02) 199-206
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 Kasasbeh AS, Smyth MD, Steger-May K, Jalilian L, Bertrand M, Limbrick DD. Outcomes after anterior or complete corpus callosotomy in children. Neurosurgery 2014; 74 (01) 17-28 , discussion 28
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Graham D, Tisdall MM, Gill D. Corpus callosotomy outcomes in pediatric patients: a systematic review. Epilepsia 2016; 57 (07) 1053-1068
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Rolston JD, Englot DJ, Knowlton RC, Chang EF. Rate and complications of adult epilepsy surgery in North America: analysis of multiple databases. Epilepsy Res 2016; 124: 55-62
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Chan AY, Rolston JD, Lee B, Vadera S, Englot DJ. Rates and predictors of seizure outcome after corpus callosotomy for drug-resistant epilepsy: a meta-analysis. J Neurosurg 2018; 130: 1-10
    Google Scholar
  • 100 Griessenauer CJ, Salam S, Hendrix P. et al. Hemispherectomy for treatment of refractory epilepsy in the pediatric age group: a systematic review. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2015; 15 (01) 34-44
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Holthausen H, May T, Adams C. et al. Seizures post hemispherectomy. In: Tuxhorn I, Holthausen H, Boenigk H. eds. Paediatric Epilepsy Syndromes and Their Surgical Treatment. London: John Libbey; 1997: 749-773
    Google Scholar
  • 102 Lew SM. Hemispherectomy in the treatment of seizures: a review. Transl Pediatr 2014; 3 (03) 208-217
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 103 Engel Jr J. What can we do for people with drug-resistant epilepsy? The 2016 Wartenberg Lecture. Neurology 2016; 87 (23) 2483-2489
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Bailey P, Bremer F. A sensory cortical representation of the vagus nerve: with a note on the effects of low blood pressure on the cortical electrogram. J Neurophysiol 1938; 1 (05) 405-412
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 The Vagus Nerve Stimulation Study Group. A randomized controlled trial of chronic vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of medically intractable seizures. Neurology 1995; 45 (02) 224-230
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Dalkilic EB. Neurostimulation devices used in treatment of epilepsy. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2017; 19 (02) 7
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Yuan H, Silberstein SD. Vagus nerve and vagus nerve stimulation, a comprehensive review: Part II. Headache 2016; 56 (02) 259-266
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Johnson RL, Wilson CG. A review of vagus nerve stimulation as a therapeutic intervention. J Inflamm Res 2018; 11: 203-213
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Ben-Menachem E. Neurostimulation-past, present, and beyond. Epilepsy Curr 2012; 12 (05) 188-191
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Groves DA, Brown VJ. Vagal nerve stimulation: a review of its applications and potential mechanisms that mediate its clinical effects. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2005; 29 (03) 493-500
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Yamamoto T. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy: indications, programing, and outcomes. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2015; 55 (05) 407-415
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Giordano F, Zicca A, Barba C, Guerrini R, Genitori L. Vagus nerve stimulation: Surgical technique of implantation and revision and related morbidity. Epilepsia 2017; 58 (Suppl. 01) 85-90
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Murphy JV, Hornig G, Schallert G. Left vagal nerve stimulation in children with refractory epilepsy. Preliminary observations. Arch Neurol 1995; 52 (09) 886-889
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Englot DJ, Rolston JD, Wright CW, Hassnain KH, Chang EF. Rates and predictors of seizure freedom with vagus nerve stimulation for intractable epilepsy. Neurosurgery 2016; 79 (03) 345-353
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 Orosz I, McCormick D, Zamponi N. et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: a European long-term study up to 24 months in 347 children. Epilepsia 2014; 55 (10) 1576-1584
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Elger G, Hoppe C, Falkai P, Rush AJ, Elger CE. Vagus nerve stimulation is associated with mood improvements in epilepsy patients. Epilepsy Res 2000; 42 (2-3): 203-210
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 117 Chambers A, Bowen JM. Electrical stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: an evidence-based analysis. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser 2013; 13 (18) 1-37
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 118 Helmers SL, Duh MS, Guérin A. et al. Clinical and economic impact of vagus nerve stimulation therapy in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2011; 22 (02) 370-375
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 119 Helmers SL, Duh MS, Guérin A. et al. Clinical outcomes, quality of life, and costs associated with implantation of vagus nerve stimulation therapy in pediatric patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2012; 16 (05) 449-458
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 120 Handforth A, DeGiorgio CM, Schachter SC. et al. Vagus nerve stimulation therapy for partial-onset seizures: a randomized active-control trial. Neurology 1998; 51 (01) 48-55
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 121 Osorio I, Frei MG, Sunderam S. et al. Automated seizure abatement in humans using electrical stimulation. Ann Neurol 2005; 57 (02) 258-268
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 122 Matias CM, Sharan A, Wu C. Responsive neurostimulation for the treatment of epilepsy. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2019; 30 (02) 231-242
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 123 Ma BB, Rao VR. Responsive neurostimulation: candidates and considerations. Epilepsy Behav 2018; 88: 388-395
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 124 Benbadis SR, Geller E, Ryvlin P. et al. Putting it all together: options for intractable epilepsy: an updated algorithm on the use of epilepsy surgery and neurostimulation. Epilepsy Behav 2018; 88S: 33-38
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 125 King-Stephens D, Mirro E, Weber PB. et al. Lateralization of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with chronic ambulatory electrocorticography. Epilepsia 2015; 56 (06) 959-967
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 126 Morrell MJ. RNS System in Epilepsy Study Group. Responsive cortical stimulation for the treatment of medically intractable partial epilepsy. Neurology 2011; 77 (13) 1295-1304
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 127 Heck CN, King-Stephens D, Massey AD. et al. Two-year seizure reduction in adults with medically intractable partial onset epilepsy treated with responsive neurostimulation: final results of the RNS System Pivotal trial. Epilepsia 2014; 55 (03) 432-441
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 128 Bergey GK, Morrell MJ, Mizrahi EM. et al. Long-term treatment with responsive brain stimulation in adults with refractory partial seizures. Neurology 2015; 84 (08) 810-817
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 129 Boon P, De Cock E, Mertens A, Trinka E. Neurostimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy: a systematic review of clinical evidence for efficacy, safety, contraindications and predictors for response. Curr Opin Neurol 2018; 31 (02) 198-210
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 130 Wei Z, Gordon CR, Bergey GK, Sacks JM, Anderson WS. Implant site infection and bone flap osteomyelitis associated with the neuropace responsive neurostimulation system. World Neurosurg 2016; 88: 687.e1-687.e6
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 131 Zangiabadi N, Ladino LD, Sina F, Orozco-Hernández JP, Carter A, Téllez-Zenteno JF. Deep brain stimulation and drug-resistant epilepsy: a review of the literature. Front Neurol 2019; 10: 601
    Google Scholar
  • 132 Cooper IS, Amin I, Riklan M, Waltz JM, Poon TP. Chronic cerebellar stimulation in epilepsy. Clinical and anatomical studies. Arch Neurol 1976; 33 (08) 559-570
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 133 Boon P, Vonck K, De Herdt V. et al. Deep brain stimulation in patients with refractory temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2007; 48 (08) 1551-1560
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 134 Feinstein B, Gleason CA, Libet B. Stimulation of locus coeruleus in man. Preliminary trials for spasticity and epilepsy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 1989; 52 (01) 26-41
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 135 Upton AR, Cooper IS, Springman M, Amin I. Suppression of seizures and psychosis of limbic system origin by chronic stimulation of anterior nucleus of the thalamus. Int J Neurol (1985-1986): 19-20: 223-230
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 136 Franzini A, Messina G, Marras C, Villani F, Cordella R, Broggi G. Deep brain stimulation of two unconventional targets in refractory non-resectable epilepsy. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2008; 86 (06) 373-381
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 137 Marino Júnior R, Gronich G. Corpus callosum stimulation and stereotactic callosotomy in the management of refractory generalized epilepsy. Preliminary communication. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 1989; 47 (03) 320-325
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 138 Drlicková V, Sramka M, Ondrejcáková G, Nádvorník P. Stimulation of the caudate nucleus in the treatment of epilepsy [in Slovak]. Cesk Neurol Neurochir 1983; 46 (05) 301-304
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 139 Henry TR. Therapeutic mechanisms of vagus nerve stimulation. Neurology 2002; 59 (06) (Suppl. 04) S3-S14
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 140 Kerrigan JF, Litt B, Fisher RS. et al. Electrical stimulation of the anterior nucleus of the thalamus for the treatment of intractable epilepsy. Epilepsia 2004; 45 (04) 346-354
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 141 Fisher R, Salanova V, Witt T. SANTE Study Group. et al. Electrical stimulation of the anterior nucleus of thalamus for treatment of refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia 2010; 51 (05) 899-908
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 142 Whiting BB, Whiting AC, Whiting DM. Thalamic deep brain stimulation. Prog Neurol Surg 2018; 33: 198-206
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 143 Salanova V. Deep brain stimulation for epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2018; 88S: 21-24
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 144 Li MCH, Cook MJ. Deep brain stimulation for drug-resistant epilepsy. Epilepsia 2018; 59 (02) 273-290
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 145 Sprengers M, Vonck K, Carrette E, Marson AG, Boon P. Deep brain and cortical stimulation for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 7: CD008497
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 146 Tröster AI, Meador KJ, Irwin CP, Fisher RS. SANTE Study Group. Memory and mood outcomes after anterior thalamic stimulation for refractory partial epilepsy. Seizure 2017; 45: 133-141
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar