Download PDF
Semin Neurol
DOI: 10.1055/s-0044-1788976
Review Article

Disparities in Delirium across the Continuum of Care and Associations with Social Determinants of Health

Anu Khanna
1   Chobanian and Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
,
Malvika Govil
2   Department of Neurology, New York Langone Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York City, New York
,
Nohamin Ayele
3   Department of Neurology, Northwestern Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
,
Altaf Saadi 
4   Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
   Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Disparities exist in the identification, treatment, and management of delirium. These disparities can be most holistically and comprehensively understood by using a social–ecological model—which acknowledges multilevel impacts including individual, interpersonal, organizational, community, and policy-level factors—as well as a social determinant of health framework, that considers nonmedical factors that influence health outcomes. This narrative review leverages both frameworks to identify and discuss existing literature pertaining to the intersection of these social risk factors and delirium, focusing specifically on disparities due to racial and/or ethnic identity, language ability, and socioeconomic differences. We also look at disparities and the potential role of these social risk factors throughout the continuum of care, including prehospitalization, hospitalization, and posthospitalization factors. Understanding and analyzing the role of these inequities is critical to ensuring better health outcomes for patients at risk of and/or with delirium.

Keywords

delirium - disparities - social determinants of health - racial/ethnic - socioeconomic status - contextual factors

Note

Altaf Saadi is supported in part by grant number K23NS128164 from the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.




Publication History

Article published online:
29 August 2024

© 2024. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 Thom RP, Levy-Carrick NC, Bui M, Silbersweig D. Delirium. Am J Psychiatry 2019; 176 (10) 785-793
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 2 Maldonado JR. Acute brain failure: pathophysiology, diagnosis, management, and sequelae of delirium. Crit Care Clin 2017; 33 (03) 461-519
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 3 Siddiqi N, House AO, Holmes JD. Occurrence and outcome of delirium in medical in-patients: a systematic literature review. Age Ageing 2006; 35 (04) 350-364
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 4 Gilchrist NA, Asoh I, Greenberg B. Atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of ICU delirium. J Intensive Care Med 2012; 27 (06) 354-361
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 5 Arias F, Alegria M, Kind AJ. et al. A framework of social determinants of health for delirium tailored to older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2022; 70 (01) 235-242
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 6 Shinozaki G, Chan AC, Sparr NA. et al. Delirium detection by a novel bispectral electroencephalography device in general hospital. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2018; 72 (12) 856-863
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 7 Lawlor PG, Bush SH. Delirium in patients with cancer: assessment, impact, mechanisms and management. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2015; 12 (02) 77-92
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 8 Fong TG, Davis D, Growdon ME, Albuquerque A, Inouye SK. The interface between delirium and dementia in elderly adults. Lancet Neurol 2015; 14 (08) 823-832
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 9 Richardson SJ, Davis DHJ, Stephan BCM. et al. Recurrent delirium over 12 months predicts dementia: results of the Delirium and Cognitive Impact in Dementia (DECIDE) study. Age Ageing 2021; 50 (03) 914-920
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 10 Golden SD, Earp JAL. Social ecological approaches to individuals and their contexts: twenty years of health education & behavior health promotion interventions. Health Educ Behav 2012; 39 (03) 364-372
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 11 McLeroy KR, Bibeau D, Steckler A, Glanz K. An ecological perspective on health promotion programs. Health Educ Q 1988; 15 (04) 351-377
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 12 Kumar S, Quinn SC, Kim KH, Musa D, Hilyard KM, Freimuth VS. The social ecological model as a framework for determinants of 2009 H1N1 influenza vaccine uptake in the United States. Health Educ Behav 2012; 39 (02) 229-243
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 13 Rashid M. Developing scales to evaluate staff perception of the effects of the physical environment on patient comfort, patient safety, patient privacy, family integration with patient care, and staff working conditions in adult intensive care units: a pilot study. Crit Care Nurs Q 2007; 30 (03) 271-283
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 14 Braveman P, Gottlieb L. The social determinants of health: it's time to consider the causes of the causes. Public Health Rep 2014; 129 (Suppl 2, Suppl 2): 19-31
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 15 Hahn RA. What is a social determinant of health? Back to basics. J Public Health Res 2021; 10 (04) 2324
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 16 Stern Y, Barnes CA, Grady C, Jones RN, Raz N. Brain reserve, cognitive reserve, compensation, and maintenance: operationalization, validity, and mechanisms of cognitive resilience. Neurobiol Aging 2019; 83: 124-129
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 17 Tow A, Holtzer R, Wang C. et al. Cognitive reserve and postoperative delirium in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2016; 64 (06) 1341-1346
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 18 Martinez FT, Tobar C, Beddings CI, Vallejo G, Fuentes P. Preventing delirium in an acute hospital using a non-pharmacological intervention. Age Ageing 2012; 41 (05) 629-634
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 19 Finucane AM, Lugton J, Kennedy C, Spiller JA. The experiences of caregivers of patients with delirium, and their role in its management in palliative care settings: an integrative literature review. Psychooncology 2017; 26 (03) 291-300
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 20 Wang YY, Yue JR, Xie DM. et al. Effect of the tailored, family-involved hospital elder life program on postoperative delirium and function in older adults: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med 2020; 180 (01) 17-25
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 21 Lahaie C, Earle A, Heymann J. An uneven burden: social disparities in adult caregiving responsibilities, working conditions, and caregiver outcomes. Res on Aging 2013; 35 (03) 243-274
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 22 Dicks R, Choi J, Waszynski C. et al. Health disparities in delirium. Innov Aging 2021; 5 (Suppl. 01) 147
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 23 Simmasalam R, Zuniga MC, Hinson HE. Neurological health in sexual and gender minority individuals. Semin Neurol 2024; 44 (02) 193-204
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 24 Saadi A, Prabhu M, Snyder SA, Daboul L, Mateen FJ. Neurological care of refugees and other forcibly displaced persons. Semin Neurol 2024; 44 (02) 217-224
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 25 Stern Y. Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia 2009; 47 (10) 2015-2028
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 26 Stern Y, Habeck C, Moeller J. et al. Brain networks associated with cognitive reserve in healthy young and old adults. Cereb Cortex 2005; 15 (04) 394-402
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 27 Jones RN, Yang FM, Zhang Y, Kiely DK, Marcantonio ER, Inouye SK. Does educational attainment contribute to risk for delirium? A potential role for cognitive reserve. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006; 61 (12) 1307-1311
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 28 Arias F, Chen F, Fong TG. et al. Neighborhood-level social disadvantage and risk of delirium following major surgery. J Am Geriatr Soc 2020; 68 (12) 2863-2871
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 29 Arias F, Chen F, Shiff H. et al. Parental education and delirium risk after surgery in older adults. Clin Gerontol 2023; 46 (02) 253-266
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 30 Shiff HM, Arias F, Dufour AB. et al. Paternal occupation and delirium risk in older adults: a potential marker of early-life exposures. Innov Aging 2022; 6 (05) igac050
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 31 Seblova D, Eng C, Avila-Rieger JF. et al. High school quality is associated with cognition 58 years later. Alzheimers Dement (Amst) 2023; 15 (02) e12424
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 32 Williams DR, Priest N, Anderson NB. Understanding associations among race, socioeconomic status, and health: patterns and prospects. Health Psychol 2016; 35 (04) 407-411
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 33 Cizginer S, Marcantonio E, Vasunilashorn S. et al. The cognitive reserve model in the development of delirium: the successful aging after elective surgery study. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2017; 30 (06) 337-345
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 34 Voyer P, Richard S, Doucet L, Cyr N, Carmichael PH. Precipitating factors associated with delirium among long-term care residents with dementia. Appl Nurs Res 2011; 24 (03) 171-178
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 35 Kornblith E, Bahorik A, Boscardin WJ, Xia F, Barnes DE, Yaffe K. Association of race and ethnicity with incidence of dementia among older adults. JAMA 2022; 327 (15) 1488-1495
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 36 Röhr S, Pabst A, Baber R. et al. Social determinants and lifestyle factors for brain health: implications for risk reduction of cognitive decline and dementia. Sci Rep 2022; 12 (01) 12965
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 37 Kovaleva M, Jones A, Maxwell CA. Immigrants and dementia: literature update. Geriatr Nurs 2021; 42 (05) 1218-1221
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 38 Saadi A, Morales B, Chen L, Sudhinaraset M. Understanding the function of social capital among Mexican and Chinese immigrants in Southern California: a qualitative study. SSM Qual Res Health 2023; 3: 100247
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 39 Kosar CM, Tabloski PA, Travison TG. et al. Effect of preoperative pain and depressive symptoms on the risk of postoperative delirium: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Psychiatry 2014; 1 (06) 431-436
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 40 Ali MA, Hashmi M, Ahmed W, Raza SA, Khan MF, Salim B. Incidence and risk factors of delirium in surgical intensive care unit. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open 2021; 6 (01) e000564
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 41 Brunson DC, Miller KA, Matheson LW, Carrillo E. Race and ethnicity and prehospital use of opioid or ketamine analgesia in acute traumatic injury. JAMA Netw Open 2023; 6 (10) e2338070
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 42 Daoust R, Paquet J, Boucher V, Pelletier M, Gouin É, Émond M. Relationship between pain, opioid treatment, and delirium in older emergency department patients. Acad Emerg Med 2020; 27 (08) 708-716
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 43 Lynch EP, Lazor MA, Gellis JE, Orav J, Goldman L, Marcantonio ER. The impact of postoperative pain on the development of postoperative delirium. Anesth Analg 1998; 86 (04) 781-785
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 44 Kennel J. Treatment Disparities in Emergency Medical Services: The Influence of Race/Ethnicity, Obesity, and English Proficiency. Ph.D. Portland State University; 2022. Accessed February 11, 2024 at: https://www.proquest.com/docview/2701048194/abstract/46CF11122CB5498BPQ/1
    Google Scholar
  • 45 Farcas AM, Joiner AP, Rudman JS. et al. Disparities in emergency medical services care delivery in the United States: a scoping review. Prehosp Emerg Care 2023; 27 (08) 1058-1071
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 46 Perez MA, Reyes-Esteves S, Mendizabal A. Racial and ethnic disparities in neurological care in the United States. Semin Neurol 2024; 44 (02) 178-192
    Article in Thieme ConnectPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 47 LaMantia MA, Messina FC, Jhanji S. et al. Emergency medical service, nursing, and physician providers' perspectives on delirium identification and management. Dementia 2017; 16 (03) 329-343
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 48 Kupas DF, Wydro GC, Tan DK, Kamin R, Harrell IV AJ, Wang A. Clinical care and restraint of agitated or combative patients by emergency medical services practitioners. Prehosp Emerg Care 2021; 25 (05) 721-723
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 49 Eswaran V, Molina MF, Hwong AR. et al. Racial disparities in emergency department physical restraint use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med 2023; 183 (11) 1229-1237
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 50 Saadi A, Naples-Mitchell J, da Silva Bhatia B, Heisler M. End the use of “excited delirium” as a cause of death in police custody. Lancet 2022; 399 (10329): 1028-1030
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 51 Elder NM, Mumma BE, Maeda MY, Tancredi DJ, Tyler KR. Emergency department length of stay is associated with delirium in older adults. West J Emerg Med 2023; 24 (03) 532-537
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 52 Moura Junior V, Westover MB, Li F. et al. Hospital complications among older adults: better processes could reduce the risk of delirium. Health Serv Manage Res 2022; 35 (03) 154-163
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 53 Lu FQ, Hanchate AD, Paasche-Orlow MK. Racial/ethnic disparities in emergency department wait times in the United States, 2013-2017. Am J Emerg Med 2021; 47: 138-144
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 54 Sangal RB, Su H, Khidir H. et al. Sociodemographic disparities in queue jumping for emergency department care. JAMA Netw Open 2023; 6 (07) e2326338
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 55 Peitzman C, Carreras Tartak JA, Samuels-Kalow M, Raja A, Macias-Konstantopoulos WL. Racial differences in triage for emergency department patients with subjective chief complaints. West J Emerg Med 2023; 24 (05) 888-893
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 56 Schrader CD, Lewis LM. Racial disparity in emergency department triage. J Emerg Med 2013; 44 (02) 511-518
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 57 van Loveren K, Singla A, Sinvani L. et al. Increased emergency department hallway length of stay is associated with development of delirium. West J Emerg Med 2021; 22 (03) 726-735
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 58 Kim DA, Sanchez LD, Chiu D, Brown IP. Social determinants of hallway bed use. West J Emerg Med 2020; 21 (04) 949-958
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 59 Tuffuor K, Su H, Meng L. et al. Inequities among patient placement in emergency department hallway treatment spaces. Am J Emerg Med 2024; 76: 70-74
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 60 Pan Y, Jiang Z, Yuan C. et al. Influence of physical restraint on delirium of adult patients in ICU: a nested case-control study. J Clin Nurs 2018; 27 (9-10): 1950-1957
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 61 Rollo E, Callea A, Brunetti V, Vollono C, Marotta J, Della Marca G. Physical restraint precipitates delirium in stroke patients. J Neurol Sci 2021; 421: 117290
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 62 Rollo E, Callea A, Brunetti V. et al. Delirium in acute stroke: a prospective, cross-sectional, cohort study. Eur J Neurol 2021; 28 (05) 1590-1600
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 63 Schnitzer K, Merideth F, Macias-Konstantopoulos W, Hayden D, Shtasel D, Bird S. Disparities in care: the role of race on the utilization of physical restraints in the emergency setting. Acad Emerg Med 2020; 27 (10) 943-950
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 64 Carreras Tartak JA, Brisbon N, Wilkie S. et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in emergency department restraint use: a multicenter retrospective analysis. Acad Emerg Med 2021; 28 (09) 957-965
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 65 Smith CM, Turner NA, Thielman NM, Tweedy DS, Egger J, Gagliardi JP. Association of Black Race With Physical and Chemical Restraint Use Among Patients Undergoing Emergency Psychiatric Evaluation. Psychiatr Serv 2022; Jul; 73 (07) 730-736
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 66 Wong AH, Whitfill T, Ohuabunwa EC. et al. Association of race/ethnicity and other demographic characteristics with use of physical restraints in the emergency department. JAMA Netw Open 2021; 4 (01) e2035241
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 67 Robinson L, Cramer LD, Ray JM. et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in use of chemical restraint in the emergency department. Acad Emerg Med 2022; 29 (12) 1496-1499
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 68 van den Boogaard M, Pickkers P, Slooter AJC. et al. Development and validation of PRE-DELIRIC (PREdiction of DELIRium in ICu patients) delirium prediction model for intensive care patients: observational multicentre study. BMJ 2012; 344: e420
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 69 Wassenaar A, van den Boogaard M, van Achterberg T. et al. Multinational development and validation of an early prediction model for delirium in ICU patients. Intensive Care Med 2015; 41 (06) 1048-1056
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 70 Taylor SP, Karvetski CH, Templin MA, Taylor BT. Hospital differences drive antibiotic delays for black patients compared with white patients with suspected septic shock. Crit Care Med 2018; 46 (02) e126-e131
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 71 Estenssoro E, Loudet CI, Edul VSK. et al; Investigators of the SATISEPSIS Group. Health inequities in the diagnosis and outcome of sepsis in Argentina: a prospective cohort study. Crit Care 2019; 23 (01) 250
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 72 Fawzy A, Wu TD, Wang K. et al. Racial and ethnic discrepancy in pulse oximetry and delayed identification of treatment eligibility among patients with COVID-19. JAMA Intern Med 2022; 182 (07) 730-738
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 73 Breathett K, Liu WG, Allen LA. et al. African Americans are less likely to receive care by a cardiologist during an intensive care unit admission for heart failure. JACC Heart Fail 2018; 6 (05) 413-420
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 74 Soto GJ, Hsieh S, Madahar P, Park SB, Gong MN. Health Disparities In The Development Of Delirium In The Intensive Care Unit. In: B94. Neuromuscular, cognitive and psychiatric issues in the intensive care unit. American Thoracic Society International Conference Abstracts. American Thoracic Society; 2012:A3643–A3643 DOI: 10.1164/ajrccm-conference.2012.185.1_MeetingAbstracts.A3643
    CrossrefPubMed
  • 75 Bauer AM, Alegría M. Impact of patient language proficiency and interpreter service use on the quality of psychiatric care: a systematic review. Psychiatr Serv 2010; 61 (08) 765-773
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 76 Nápoles AM, Santoyo-Olsson J, Karliner LS, Gregorich SE, Pérez-Stable EJ. Inaccurate language interpretation and its clinical significance in the medical encounters of Spanish-speaking Latinos. Med Care 2015; 53 (11) 940-947
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 77 Karliner LS, Jacobs EA, Chen AH, Mutha S. Do professional interpreters improve clinical care for patients with limited English proficiency? A systematic review of the literature. Health Serv Res 2007; 42 (02) 727-754
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 78 Schenker Y, Pérez-Stable EJ, Nickleach D, Karliner LS. Patterns of interpreter use for hospitalized patients with limited English proficiency. J Gen Intern Med 2011; 26 (07) 712-717
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 79 Chejor P, Atee M, Cain P, Whiting D, Morris T, Porock D. Comparing clinico-demographics and neuropsychiatric symptoms for immigrant and non-immigrant aged care residents living with dementia: a retrospective cross-sectional study from an Australian dementia-specific support service. BMC Geriatr 2023; 23 (01) 729
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 80 Reppas-Rindlisbacher C, Shin S, Purohit U. et al. Association between non-English language and use of physical and chemical restraints among medical inpatients with delirium. J Am Geriatr Soc 2022; 70 (12) 3640-3643
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 81 Chary AN, Torres B, Brickhouse E. et al. Language discordance in emergency department delirium screening: results from a qualitative interview-based study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2023; 71 (04) 1328-1331
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 82 Wand AP, Thoo W, Ting V, Baker J, Sciuriaga H, Hunt GE. Identification and rates of delirium in elderly medical inpatients from diverse language groups. Geriatr Nurs 2013; 34 (05) 355-360
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 83 Taha A, Xu H, Ahmed R. et al. Medical and economic burden of delirium on hospitalization outcomes of acute respiratory failure: a retrospective national cohort. Medicine (Baltimore) 2023; 102 (02) e32652
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 84 Burke LG, Frakt AB, Khullar D, Orav EJ, Jha AK. Association between teaching status and mortality in US hospitals. JAMA 2017; 317 (20) 2105-2113
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 85 Ragheb J, Norcott A, Benn L. et al. Barriers to delirium screening and management during hospital admission: a qualitative analysis of inpatient nursing perspectives. BMC Health Serv Res 2023; 23 (01) 712
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 86 Eagles D, Cheung WJ, Avlijas T. et al. Barriers and facilitators to nursing delirium screening in older emergency patients: a qualitative study using the theoretical domains framework. Age Ageing 2022; 51 (01) afab256
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 87 Travers JL, Castle N, Weaver SH. et al. Environmental and structural factors driving poor quality of care: an examination of nursing homes serving Black residents. J Am Geriatr Soc 2023; 71 (10) 3040-3048
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 88 Brooks Carthon M, Brom H, McHugh M. et al. Better nurse staffing is associated with survival for black patients and diminishes racial disparities in survival after in-hospital cardiac arrests. Med Care 2021; 59 (02) 169-176
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 89 Keijzer HM, Klop M, van Putten MJAM, Hofmeijer J. Delirium after cardiac arrest: phenotype, prediction, and outcome. Resuscitation 2020; 151: 43-49
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 90 Teece A, Baker J, Smith H. Identifying determinants for the application of physical or chemical restraint in the management of psychomotor agitation on the critical care unit. J Clin Nurs 2020; 29 (1-2): 5-19
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 91 Inouye SK, Bogardus Jr ST, Charpentier PA. et al. A multicomponent intervention to prevent delirium in hospitalized older patients. N Engl J Med 1999; 340 (09) 669-676
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 92 Marra A, Ely EW, Pandharipande PP, Patel MB. The ABCDEF bundle in critical care. Crit Care Clin 2017; 33 (02) 225-243
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 93 Lee P, Le Saux M, Siegel R. et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in the management of acute pain in US emergency departments: Meta-analysis and systematic review. Am J Emerg Med 2019; 37 (09) 1770-1777
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 94 Wing E, Saadat S, Bhargava R, Yun H, Chakravarthy B. Racial disparities in opioid prescriptions for fractures in the pediatric population. Am J Emerg Med 2022; 51: 210-213
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 95 Jolley S, Nordon-Craft A, Wilson MP. et al. Disparities in the allocation of inpatient physical and occupational therapy services for patients with COVID-19. J Hosp Med 2022; 17 (02) 88-95
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 96 van den Boogaard M, Slooter AJC, Brüggemann RJM. et al; REDUCE Study Investigators. Effect of haloperidol on survival among critically ill adults with a high risk of delirium: the REDUCE randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2018; 319 (07) 680-690
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 97 Girard TD, Exline MC, Carson SS. et al; MIND-USA Investigators. Haloperidol and ziprasidone for treatment of delirium in critical illness. N Engl J Med 2018; 379 (26) 2506-2516
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 98 Thomann S, Zwakhalen S, Richter D, Bauer S, Hahn S. Restraint use in the acute-care hospital setting: a cross-sectional multi-centre study. Int J Nurs Stud 2021; 114: 103807
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 99 Boley S, Sidebottom A, Vacquier M, Watson D. Investigating racial disparities in chemical and physical restraint of mental health patients in the emergency department. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2023; DOI: 10.1007/s40615-023-01863-4.
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 100 Pino EC, Gonzalez F, Nelson KP, Jaiprasert S, Lopez GM. Disparities in use of physical restraints at an urban, minority-serving hospital emergency department. Acad Emerg Med 2024; 31 (01) 6-17
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 101 Wen T. An All-Payer View of Hospital Discharge to Postacute Care, 2013. HCUP Statistical Brief #205. Published online May 2016. Accessed May 14, 2024 at: http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb205-Hospital-Discharge-Postacute-Care.pdf
    PubMed
  • 102 Biennial Overview of Post-Acute and Long-Term Care in the United States from 2020. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS); 2020 Accessed August 6, 2024 at: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/npals/webtables/overview.htm
    PubMed
  • 103 Rivera-Hernandez M, Kumar A, Epstein-Lubow G, Thomas KS. Disparities in nursing home use and quality among African American, Hispanic, and White Medicare Residents with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. J Aging Health 2019; 31 (07) 1259-1277
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 104 Bos A, Boselie P, Trappenburg M. Financial performance, employee well-being, and client well-being in for-profit and not-for-profit nursing homes: a systematic review. Health Care Manage Rev 2017; 42 (04) 352-368
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 105 Comondore VR, Devereaux PJ, Zhou Q. et al. Quality of care in for-profit and not-for-profit nursing homes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2009; 339: b2732
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 106 Li Y, Yin J, Cai X, Temkin-Greener J, Mukamel DB. Association of race and sites of care with pressure ulcers in high-risk nursing home residents. JAMA 2011; 306 (02) 179-186
    PubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 107 Voyer P, Richard S, McCusker J. et al. Detection of delirium and its symptoms by nurses working in a long term care facility. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2012; 13 (03) 264-271
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 108 Sepúlveda E, Franco JG, Leunda A, Moreno L, Grau I, Vilella E. Delirium clinical correlates and underdiagnosis in a skilled nursing home. Eur J Psychiatry 2019; 33 (04) 152-158
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 109 Feng Z, Hirdes JP, Smith TF. et al. Use of physical restraints and antipsychotic medications in nursing homes: a cross-national study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2009; 24 (10) 1110-1118
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 110 Boorsma M, Joling KJ, Frijters DHM, Ribbe ME, Nijpels G, van Hout HPJ. The prevalence, incidence and risk factors for delirium in Dutch nursing homes and residential care homes. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2012; 27 (07) 709-715
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 111 Cassie KM, Cassie W. Racial disparities in the use of physical restraints in U.S. nursing homes. Health Soc Work 2013; 38 (04) 207-213
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 112 Jaffe KM, Jimenez N. Disparity in rehabilitation: another inconvenient truth. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2015; 96 (08) 1371-1374
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 113 Jung D, Rajbhandari-Thapa J, Chen Z. Disparities in successful discharge to the community following use of Medicare Home Health by level of neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage. J Appl Gerontol 2023; 42 (10) 2119-2128
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 114 Halloway S. A family approach to delirium: a review of the literature. Aging Ment Health 2014; 18 (02) 129-139
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 115 McKenzie J, Joy A. Family intervention improves outcomes for patients with delirium: systematic review and meta-analysis. Australas J Ageing 2020; 39 (01) 21-30
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  • 116 Shrestha P, Fick DM. Family caregiver's experience of caring for an older adult with delirium: a systematic review. Int J Older People Nurs 2020; 15 (04) e12321
    CrossrefPubMedGoogle Scholar