PDF herunterladen
Semin Neurol 2001; 21(1): 091-102
DOI: 10.1055/s-2001-13124
Copyright © 2001 by Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc., 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA. Tel.: +1(212) 584-4662

Neurosurgery for Parkinson's Disease

Theresa A. Zesiewicz1 , Robert A. Hauser1, 2
  • 1Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders Center, Department of Neurology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida and
  • 2Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
Weitere Informationen

Publikationsverlauf

Publikationsdatum:
31. Dezember 2001 (online)

    Lizenzen und Reprints

ABSTRACT

Medical therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD) often becomes inadequate over several years. Disability increases despite maximal medical management and many patients develop motor fluctuations and dyskinesia. In addition, medications provide good control of tremor in only 50% of cases. In appropriately selected cases, surgical therapies for PD provide benefit for medically refractory symptoms. Recent advances have provided a greater array of surgical options. Unilateral thalamotomy and thalamic stimulation are considered safe and effective procedures to treat contralateral tremor. Pallidotomy and pallidal stimulation primarily reduce contralateral dyskinesia, with lesser effects on bradykinesia and rigidity. Studies indicate that subthalamic nucleus (STN) stimulation improves ``off'' period function, decreases ``off'' time, and lessens dyskinesia. Fetal cell transplantation remains experimental, and studies are underway to evaluate the safety and efficacy of porcine fetal cell and human retinal pigment epithelial cell transplantation. This chapter reviews the history of surgical procedures for PD, describes current procedures, and offers a look into the future of neurosurgical options for PD.

KEYWORD

Parkinson's disease - surgery - thalamotomy - thalamic stimulation - pallidotomy - pallidal stimulation - subthalamic nucleus stimulation - fetal cell transplantation - porcine cell transplantation - human retinal pigment epithelial cell transplantation

REFERENCES

  • 1 Koller W C, Busenbark K, Minor K, and the ET Study Group. Relationship of essential tremor to other movement disorders: report on 678 patients.  Ann Neurol . 1994;  35 717-723
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 2 Lang A E, Lozano A M. Parkinson's disease.  N Engl J Med . 1998;  339 1130-1143
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 3 Das K, Benzil D L, Rovit R. Irving S. Cooper (1922-1985): a pioneer in functional neurosurgery.  J Neurosurg . 1988;  89 865-873
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 4 Meyers H R. The modification of alternating tremors, rigidity, and festination by surgery of the basal ganglia.  Nerv Ment Dis . 1942;  21 602-665
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 5 Meyers H R. Surgical procedure for postencephalitic tremor, with notes on the physiology of the premotor fibers.  Arch Neurol Psychiatry . 1940;  44 455-457
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 6 Bucy P C. Cortical extirpation in the treatment of involuntary movements.  Res Nerv Ment Dis Proc . 1942;  21 551-595
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 7 Cooper I S, Bravo G J. Implications of a five-year study of 700 basal ganglia operations.  Neurology . 1958;  8 344-346
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 8 Cooper I S, Bravo G J, Riklan M. Chemopallidectomy and chemothalamectomy for parkinsonism.  Geriatrics . 1958;  13 127-144
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 9 Svennilson E, Torvik A, Lowe R, Leksell L. Treatment of parkinsonism by stereotactic thermolesions in the pallidal region.  Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1960;  35 358-377
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 10 Mundinger F, Riechert T. Esgelnisse der sterotaktischen Hirnoperationen bei extrapyramidalen Bewegungsstrorungen auf Grund postoperativer und Langzeituntersuchungen.  Dtsch Z Nervenheilkd . 1961;  182 5442-5576
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 11 Cooper I S. Parkinsonism: Its Medical and Surgical Therapy.  Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas; 1961
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 12 Spiegel E A, Wycis H T. Stereoencephalotomy: Part 2. Clinical and Physiological Applications New York: Grune & Stratton; 1962
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 13 Cooper I S. Surgical treatment of parkinsonism.  Annu Rev Med . 1965;  16 309-330
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 14 Spiegel E A, Wycis H T, Marks M. Stereotactic apparatus for operation on the human brain.  Science . 1947;  106 349-350
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 15 Spiegel E A, Wycis H T. Ansotomy in paralysis agitans.  Arch Neurol Psychiatry . 1954;  71 598-614
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 16 Laitenen L V, Bergenheim A T, Hariz M I. Leskell's posteroventral pallidotomy in the treatment of Parkinson's disease.  J Neurosurg . 1992;  76 53-61
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 17 Laitenen L V, Bergenheim A T, Hariz M I. Ventroposterolateral pallidotomy can abolish all parkinsonian symptoms.  Stereotact Funct Neurosurg . 1992;  58 14-21
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 18 Selby G. Stereotactic surgery for the relief of Parkinson's disease: Part I. A critical review.  J Neurol Sci . 1967;  5 315-342
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 19 Tasker R R. Surgical aspects: symposium on extrapyramidal disease.  Appl Ther . 1967;  9 454-462
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 20 Tasker R R, Siqueira J, Hawrylyshyn P. What happened to VIM thalamotomy for Parkinson's disease?.  Appl Neurophysiol . 1983;  46 68-83
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 21 Kelly P J, Ahlskog J E, Goerss S J. Computer-assisted stereotactic ventralis lateralis thalamotomy with microelectrode recording in patients with Parkinson's disease.  Mayo Clin Proc . 1987;  62 655-664
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 22 Matsumoto K, Schichijo F, Fukami T. Long-term follow-up review cases of Parkinson's disease after unilateral or bilateral thalamotomy.  J Neurosurg . 1984;  60 1033-1044
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 23 Miyamoto T, Bekku H, Moriyama E. Present role of stereotactic thalamotomy for parkinsonism: retrospective analysis of operative results and thalamic lesions in computed tomograms.  Appl Neurophysiol . 1985;  48 294-304
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 24 Mundinger F. Postoperative and long-term results of 1,561 stereotactic operations in parkinsonism.  Appl Neurophysiol . 1985;  48 293
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 25 Narabayashi H, Maeda T, Yokochi F. Long-term follow-up results of selective VIM-thalamotomy.  J Neurosurg . 1986;  65 296-302
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 26 Scott R M, Brody J A, Cooper I S. The effect of thalamotomy on the progress of unilateral Parkinson's disease.  J Neurosurg . 1970;  32 286-288
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 27 Tasker R R. Thalamotomy.  Neurol Clin . 1990;  1 841-864
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 28 Riechert T. Stereotactic Brain Operations: Methods, Clinical Aspects, Indications.  Bern: Hans Huber 1980: 213-304
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 29 Linhares M N, Tasker R R. Microelectrode-guided thalamotomy for Parkinson's disease.  Neurosurgery . 2000;  46 390-398
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 30 Fox M W, Ahlskog J E, Kelly P J. Stereotactic ventrolateralis thalamotomy for medically refractory tremor in post-levodopa era Parkinson's disease patients.  J Neurosurg . 1991;  75 723-730
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 31 Osenbach R K, Burchiel K J. Thalamotomy: indications, techniques and results. In: Lozano AM, ed. Neurosurgical Treatment of Movement Disorders Park Ridge: AANS 1998: 107-129
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 32 Diederich N, Goetz C G, Stebbins G T. Blinded evaluation confirms long-term asymmetric effect of unilateral thalamotomy or subthalamotomy on tremor in Parkinson's disease.  Neurology . 1992;  42 1311-1314
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 33 Moriyama E, Beck H, Miyamoto T. Long-term results of ventrolateral thalamotomy for patients with Parkinson's disease.  Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) . 1999;  39 350-356
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 34 Laitenen L V. Thalamic targets in stereotactic treatment of Parkinson's disease.  J Neurosurg . 1966;  24 82-85
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 35 Lozano A, Hutchison W, Kiss Z, Tasker R, Davis K, Dostrovsky J. Methods for microelectrode-guided posteroventral pallidotomy.  J Neurosurg . 1996;  84 194-202
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 36 Lang A E, Duff J, Saint-Cyr J A. Posteroventral medial pallidotomy in Parkinson's disease.  J Neurol . 1999;  28-48 (28-48)
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 37 Laitenen L V, Bergenheim T, Hariz A L. Leksell's posteroventral pallidotomy in the treatment of Parkinson's disease.  J Neurosurg . 1992;  76 53-61
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 38 Dogali M, Fazzini E, Kolodny E. Stereotactic ventral pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease.  Neurology . 1995;  45 753-761
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 39 Lozano A M, Lang A E, Galvez-Jimenez N. Effect of Gpi pallidotomy on motor function in Parkinson's disease.  Lancet . 1995;  346 1383-1387
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 40 Baron M S, Vitek J L, Bakay R AE. Treatment of advanced Parkinson's disease by posterior Gpi pallidotomy: 1-year results of a pilot study.  Ann Neurol . 1996;  40 355-366
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 41 Uitti R J, Wharen R E, Turk M F. Unilateral pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease: comparison of outcome in younger versus elderly patients.  Neurology . 1997;  49 1072-1077
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 42 Fazzini E, Dogali M, Sterio D. Stereotactic pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease: a long-term follow-up of unilateral pallidotomy.  Neurology . 1997;  48 1273-1277
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 43 Merello M, Nouzeilles M I, Cammarotta A. Changes in the motor response to acute L-dopa challenge after unilateral microelectrode-guided posteroventral pallidotomy.  Clin Neuropharmacol . 1998;  21 135-138
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 44 Jankovic J, Ben-Arie L, Schwartz K. Movement and reaction times and fine coordination tasks following pallidotomy.  Mov Disord . 1999;  14 57-62
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 45 Iacono R P, Shima F, Lonser R R. The results, indications and physiology of posteroventral pallidotomy for patients with Parkinson's disease.  Neurosurgery . 1995;  36 1118-1127
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 46 Lang A E, Lozano A M, Montgomery E. Posteroventral medial pallidotomy in advanced Parkinson's disease.  N Engl J Med . 1997;  337 1036-1042
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 47 Sutton J P, Couldwell W, Lew M F. Ventroposterior medial pallidotomy on motor function in Parkinson's disease.  Neurosurgery . 1995;  36 1112-1117
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 48 Ondo W G, Jankovic J, Lai E C. Assessment of motor function after stereotactic pallidotomy.  Neurology . 1998;  50 266-270
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 49 Melnick M E, Dowling G A, Aminoff M J. Effect of pallidotomy on postural control and motor function in Parkinson's disease.  Arch Neurol . 1999;  56 1361-1365
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 50 Martinez-Martin P, Valldeoriola F, Molinuevo J L. Pallidotomy and quality of life in patients with Parkinson's disease: an early study.  Mov Disord . 2000;  15 65-70
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 51 Uitti R J, Wharen R E, Turk M F. Efficacy of levodopa therapy on motor function after posteroventral pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease.  Neurology . 1998;  51 1755-1757
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 52 Kishore A, Turnbull I M, Snow B J. Efficacy, stability and predictors of outcome of pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease: six month follow-up with additional 1-year observations.  Brain . 1997;  120 729-737
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 53 Koller W C, Pahwa R, Lyons K, Albanese A. Surgical treatment of Parkinson's disease.  J Neurol Sci . 1999;  167 1-10
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 54 Ondo W G, Ben-Aire L, Jankovic J. Weight gain following unilateral pallidotomy in Parkinson's disease.  Acta Neurol Scand . 2000;  101 79-84
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 55 Johnson K A, Cunnginton R, Bradshaw J L. Bimanual co-ordination in Parkinson's disease.  Brain . 1998;  121 743-753
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 56 Schuurman P R, De Bie M A R, Speelman J D. Bilateral posteroventral pallidotomy in advanced Parkinson's disease in three patients.  Mov Disord . 1997;  12 7552-7555
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 57 Hoehn M M, Yahr M D. Evaluation of the long term results of surgical therapy. In: Gillingham FJ, Donaldson IML, eds. Third Symposium on Parkinson's Disease London: Livingstone 1969: 274-280
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 58 Scott R, Gregory T, Hines N. Neuropsychological, neurological, and functional outcome following pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease: a consecutive series of eight simultaneous bilateral and twelve unilateral procedures.  Brain . 1998;  121 659-675
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 59 Giller C A, Dewey R B, Ginsburg M I. Stereotactic pallidotomy and thalamotomy using individual variations of anatomic landmarks for localization.  Neurosurgery . 1998;  42 56-62
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 60 Merello M, Nouzeilles M I, Kuzis G. Unilateral radiofrequency lesion versus electrostimulation of posteroventral pallidum: a prospective randomized comparison.  Mov Disord . 1999;  14 50-56
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 61 Siegfried J, Compte P, Meier R. Intracerebral electrode implantation system.  J Neurosurg . 1983;  59 356-359
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 62 Siegfried J, Rea G. Advances in neurostimulation devices. In: Plichina F, Broggi G, eds. Advanced Technology in Neurosurgery Berlin: Springer 1988: 199-207
    Suche in Google Scholar
  • 63 Tasker R R, Organ L W, Hawrylshyn P. Investigation of the surgical target for alleviation of involuntary movement disorders.  Appl Neurophysiol . 1982;  45 261-274
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 64 Benabid A L, Pollak P, Gao D. Chronic electrical stimulation of the ventralis intermedius nucleus of the thalamus as a treatment of movement disorders.  J Neurosurg . 1996;  84 203-214
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 65 Blond S, Caparros-Lefebvre D, Parker F. Control of tremor and involuntary movement disorders by chronic stereotactic stimulation of the ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus.  J Neurosurg . 1992;  77 62-68
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 66 Koller W, Pahwa R, Busenbark K. High-frequency unilateral thalamic stimulation in the treatment of essential and parkinsonian tremor.  Ann Neurol . 1997;  42 292-299
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 67 Limousin P, Speelman J D, Gielsen F. Multicentre European study of thalamic stimulation in parkinsonian and essential tremor.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry . 1999;  66 289-296
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 68 Ondo W, Jankovic J, Schwartz K. Unilateral thalamic deep brain stimulation for refractory essential tremor and Parkinson's disease tremor.  Neurology . 1998;  51 1063-1069
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 69 Schuurman P R, Bosch D A, Bossuyt P. A comparison of continuous thalamic stimulation and thalamotomy for suppression of severe tremor.  N Engl J Med . 2000;  342 461-468
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 70 Siegfried J, Lippitz B. Bilateral chronic electrostimulation of ventroposterolateral pallidum: a new therapeutic approach for alleviating all parkinsonian symptoms.  Neurosurgery . 1994;  35 1126-1130
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 71 Volkman J, Sturm V, Weiss P. Bilateral high-frequency stimulation of the internal globus pallidus in advanced Parkinson's disease.  Ann Neurol . 1998;  44 953-961
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 72 Ghika J, Villemure J G, Fankhauser H. Efficiency and safety of bilateral contemporaneous pallidal stimulation (deep brain stimulation) in levodopa-responsive patients with Parkinson's disease with severe motor fluctuations: a 2-year follow-up review.  J Neurosurg . 1998;  89 713-718
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 73 Benazzouz A, Piallat B, Ni G. Implication of the subthalamic nucleus in the pathophysiology and pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease.  Cell Transplant . 2000;  9 215-221
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 74 Smith Y, Parent A. Neurons of the subthalamic nucleus in primates display glutamate but not GABA immunoreactivity.  Brain Res . 1988;  453 353-356
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 75 Sellal F, Hirsch E, Lisovoski F. Contralateral disappearance of parkinsonian signs after subthalamic hematoma.  Neurology . 1992;  42 255-256
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 76 Rodriguez M C, Obeso J A, Olanow C W. Subthalamic nucleus-mediated excitotoxicity in Parkinson's disease: a target for neuroprotection.  Ann Neurol . 1998;  S175-S188 (S175-S188)
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 77 Limousin P, Krack P, Pollak P. Electrical stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in advanced Parkinson's disease.  N Engl J Med . 1998;  339 1105-1111
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 78 Krack P, Pollak P, Limousin P. Subthalamic nucleus or internal pallidal stimulation in young onset Parkinson's disease.  Brain . 1998;  121 451-457
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 79 Houeto J L, Damier P, Bejjani P B. Subthalamic stimulation in Parkinson's disease.  Arch Neurol . 2000;  57 461-465
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 80 Moro E, Scerrati M, Romito L MA. Chronic subthalamic nucleus stimulation reduced medication requirements in Parkinson's disease.  Neurology . 1999;  53 85-90
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 81 Krack P, Pollak P, Limousin P. From off-period dystonia to peak-dose chorea: the clinical spectrum of varying subthalamic nucleus activity.  Brain . 1999;  122 1133-1146
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 82 Kumar R, Lozano A M, Sime E. Comparative effects of unilateral and bilateral subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation.  Neurology . 1999;  53 561-566
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 83 Krack P, Pollak P, Limousin P. Subthalamic nucleus stimulation and internal pallidal stimulation in young onset Parkinson's disease.  Brain . 1998;  121 451-457
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 84 Kumar R, Lozano A M, Montgomery E. Pallidotomy and deep brain stimulation of the pallidum and subthalamic nucleus in advanced Parkinson's disease.  Mov Disord . 1998;  13 73-82
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 85 Burchiel K J, Anderson V C, Favre J. Comparison of pallidal and subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation for advanced Parkinson's disease: results of a randomized, blinded pilot study.  Neurosurgery . 1999;  45 1375-1384
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 86 Ardouin C, Pillon B, Peiffer E. Bilateral subthalamic or pallidal stimulation for Parkinson's disease affects neither memory nor executive functions: a consecutive series of 62 patients.  Ann Neurol . 1999;  46 217-223
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 87 Madrazo I, Drucker-Colin R, Diaz V. Open microsurgical autograft of adrenal medulla to right caudate nucleus in two patients with intractable Parkinson's disease.  N Engl J Med . 1987;  316 831-834
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 88 Ahlskog J E, Kelly P I, van Heerden A J. Adrenal medullary transplantation into the brain for treatment of Parkinson's disease: clinical outcome and neurochemical studies.  Mayo Clin Proc . 1990;  65 305-328
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 89 Apuzzo J L, Neal H, Waters C H. Utilization of unilateral and bilateral stereotactically placed adrenomedullary-striatal autografts in parkinsonian humans: rationale, techniques and observations.  Neurosurgery . 1990;  26 746-757
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 90 Koller W C, Waxman M, Morantz R. Adrenal neural transplants in Parkinson's disease.  Adv Neurol . 1990;  53 559-565
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 91 Olanow C W, Koller W C, Goetz C G. Autologous transplantation of adrenal medulla in Parkinson's disease.  Arch Neurol . 1990;  47 1286-1289
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 92 Goetz C G, Stebbins G T, Klawans H L. United Parkinson Foundation neurotransplantation registry on adrenal medullary transplant: presurgical, and 1- and 2-year follow-up.  Neurology . 1991;  41 1719-1722
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 93 Jankovic J, Grossman R, Goodman C. Clinical, biochemical, and neuropathologic findings following transplantation of adrenal medulla to the caudate nucleus for treatment of Parkinson's disease.  Neurology . 1989;  39 1227-1234
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 94 Frank F, Sturiale C, Gaist C. Adrenal medulla autograft in a human brain for Parkinson's disease.  Acta Neurochir (Wien) . 1988;  94 162-163
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 95 Hurtig H, Joyce J, Sladek J R. Post-mortem analysis of adrenal medulla-to-caudate autograft in a patient with Parkinson's disease.  Ann Neurol . 1989;  25 607-614
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 96 Waters C H, Itabashi H H, Apuzzo M LJ. Adrenal to caudate transplantation: post mortem study.  Mov Disord . 1990;  5 248-250
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 97 Kordower J H, Cochran E, Penn R. Putative chromaffin cell survival and enhanced host derived TH-fiber innervation following a functional adrenal medulla autograft for Parkinson's disease.  Ann Neurol . 1991;  29 405-412
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 98 Hirsch E C, Duyckaerts C, Javoy-Agid F. Does adrenal graft enhance recovery of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease?.  Ann Neurol . 1990;  27 676-682
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 99 Bjorklund A, Stenevi U, Schmidt R H. Intracerebral grafting of neuronal cell suspensions: I. Introduction and general methods of preparation.  Acta Physiol Scand . 1983;  522 9-18
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 100 Perlow M, Freed W J, Hoffer B J. Brain grafts reduce motor abnormalities produced by destruction of nigro-striatal dopamine system.  Science . 1979;  204 643-647
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 101 Clarkson E D, Freed C R. Development of fetal neural transplantation as a treatment for Parkinson's disease.  Life Sci . 1999;  23 2427-2437
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 102 Lindvall O, Rehncrona S, Gustavii N. Fetal dopamine-rich mesencephalic grafts in Parkinson's disease.  Lancet . 1988;  1483-1484
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 103 Mahalick T J, Finger T E, Stromberg I. Substantia nigra transplants into denervated striatum of the rat: ultrastructure of graft-host interconnections.  J Comp Neurol . 1985;  240 60-70
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 104 Wuerthele S M, Freed W J, Olson L. Effects of dopamine agonists and antagonists on the electrical activity of substantia nigra neurons transplanted into the lateral ventricle of the rat.  Exp Brain Res . 1981;  44 1-10
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 105 Schmidt R H, Ingvar M, Lindvall O. Functional activity of substantia nigra grafts reinnervating the striatum: neurotransmitter metabolism and [14C]-2-deoxy-D-glucose autoradiography.  J Neurochem . 1982;  38 737-748
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 106 Brundin P, Bjorklund A. Survival, growth and function of dopaminergic neurons grafted to the brain.  Prog Brain Res . 1987;  71 293-308
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 107 Sladek J R, Collier T C, Haber S N. Survival and growth of fetal catecholamine neurons transplanted into the primate brain.  Brain Res Bull . 1986;  17 809-818
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 108 Bakay R AE, Barrow D L, Fiandca M S. Biochemical and behavioral correction of MPTP-like syndrome by fetal transplantation.  Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1987;  495 623-640
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 109 Lindvall O. Update of fetal transplantation: the Swedish experience.  Mov Disord . 1998;  83-87 (83-87)
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 110 Lindvall O. Neural transplantation: a hope for patients with Parkinson's disease.  Neuroreport . 1997;  8 iii-x
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 111 Piccini P, Brooks D J, Bjorklund A. Dopamine release from nigral transplants visualized in vivo in a Parkinson's patient.  Nat Neurosci . 1999;  2 1137-1140
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 112 Lindvall O, Sawle G, Widner H. Evidence for long-term survival and function of dopaminergic grafts in progressive Parkinson's disease.  Ann Neurol . 1994;  35 172-180
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 113 Freeman T B, Olanow C W, Hauser R A. Bilateral fetal nigral transplantation into the postcommissural putamen in Parkinson's disease.  Ann Neurol . 1995;  38 379-388
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 114 Kordower J H, Freeman T B, Snow B A. Neuropathological evidence of graft survival and striatal reinnervation after the transplantation of fetal mesencephalic tissue in a patient with Parkinson's disease.  N Engl J Med . 1995;  332 1118-1124
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 115 Kordower J H, Freeman T B, Olanow C W. Neuropathology of fetal nigral grafts in patients with Parkinson's disease.  Mov Disord . 1998;  88-95 (88-95)
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 116 Hauser R A, Freeman T B, Snow B J. Long-term evaluation of bilateral fetal nigral transplantation in Parkinson's disease.  Arch Neurol . 1999;  56 179-187
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 117 Wenning G K, Odin P, Morrish P. Short- and long-term survival and function of unilateral intrastriatal dopaminergic grafts in Parkinson's disease.  Ann Neurol . 1997;  42 95-107
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 118 Fahn S. Double-blind controlled trial of embryonic dopaminergic tissue transplants in advanced Parkinson's disease.  Mov Disord . 2000;  M114 (M114)
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 119 Greenley H T, Hamm T, Johnson R. The ethical use of human embryonic tissue in medicine.  N Engl J Med . 1989;  320 1093-1096
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 120 Freeman T B, Wojak J, Brandeis L. Cross-species intracerebral grafting of embryonic swine dopaminergic neurons.  Prog Brain Res . 1988;  78 473-477
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 121 Schumacher J M, Ellias S A, Palmer E P. Transplantation of embryonic porcine mesencephalic tissue in patients with PD.  Neurology . 2000;  54 1042-1050
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 122 Subramanian R, Burnette B, Bakay R AE. Intrastriatal transplantation of human retinal pigmented epithelial cells attached to gelatin microcarriers (hRPE-GM) improved parkinsonian motor signs in hemiparkinsonian (HP) monkeys.  Mov Disord . 1998;  13 268
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 123 Subramanian R, Bakay R AE, Cornfeldt M E. Blinded placebo-controlled trial to assess the effects of striatal transplantation of human retinal pigmented epithelial cells attached to microcarriers (hRPE-M) in parkinsonian monkeys.  Parkinsonism Relat Disord . 1999;  5 S111
    CrossrefPubMedSuche in Google Scholar
  • 124 Chang C JG, Cornfeldt M L, Schweikert A W. Intracranial tolerability of SpheramineTM (gelatin microcarrier-bound human retinal pigment epithelial (hRPE) cells) and gelatin microcarriers in cynomolgus monkey.  Soc Neurosci . 1999;  25 747
    PubMedSuche in Google Scholar