Key words
pregnancy - diabetes mellitus - obesity - weight gain - large for gestational age
- gestational diabetes
Schlüsselwörter
Schwangerschaft - Diabetes mellitus - Adipositas - Gewichtszunahme - Large-for-gestational-age
- Gestationsdiabetes
Introduction
Being overweight or obese are major risk factors for cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
musculoskeletal disorders and some cancers. Today, overweight and obesity are linked
to more deaths worldwide than underweight. Childhood obesity has risen in the last
decades to reach concerning rates of nearly 20%, which corresponds to over 340 million
overweight children and adolescents aged 5 to 19 years in 2016. Childhood obesity
is associated with breathing difficulties, an increased risk of fractures, hypertension,
early markers of cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance, psychological effects
and premature death and disability in adulthood [1].
The etiology of obesity is multifactorial and has been linked to genetic, metabolic,
nutritional, activity, socioeconomic, psychological and prenatal factors [2].
Infants born large for gestational age (LGA) are more likely to be obese in childhood
and adolescence [3], [4], [5], [6]. These data, adjusted for ethnicity, sex and socioeconomic factors in different
populations and settings, have recently been confirmed [7]. The reported risk ratios, adjusted for income, sex, ethnicity, parental marital
status and parental physical activity levels, were highest for severe maternal obesity
(BMI > 35) followed by being born LGA and revealed being LGA to be an independent
risk factor for overweight and obesity in adolescence and adulthood.
The developmental origin of an adult disease hypothesis suggests that large size at
birth may predispose to early childhood obesity and metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular
disease in later life [8], [9].
LGA is defined as a birth weight above the 90th percentile for the corresponding gestational
age. Correspondingly, the LGA rate in a normal birth cohort is about 10%. Risk factors
closely associated with higher rates of LGA infants are maternal pre-gravid obesity,
excessive gestational weight gain exceeding the recommendations of the Institute of
Medicine (IOM) ([Table 1]), and diabetes in pregnancy [10].
Table 1 Institute of Medicine weight gain recommendations for pregnancy (modified from the
Institute of Medicine [10]).
|
Pre-pregnancy weight category
|
Body mass index (kg/m2)
|
Recommended range of total weight (kg)
|
|
Underweight
|
Less than 18.5
|
12.5 – 18
|
|
Normal weight
|
18.5 – 24.9
|
11.5 – 16
|
|
Overweight
|
25 – 29.9
|
7 – 11.5
|
|
Obese (includes all classes)
|
30 and greater
|
5 – 9
|
In this study, we aimed to evaluate the specific impact of these three risk factors
on fetal macrosomia, evaluating what matters with regard to the risk of fetal overgrowth.
We performed a retrospective cohort study of 12 701 deliveries documented in our university
hospital birth registry from 2003 to 2014.
Materials and Methods
Cohort composition
Data were based on the birth charts of 16 292 deliveries recorded between 2003 and
2014 in the standardized nationally used perinatal documentation system of our university
hospital. Pre-pregnancy body weight and height documented in the system were obtained
from patientsʼ maternity records. Body mass index and weight gain during pregnancy
were calculated based on these data.
From this original cohort we included all women with singleton pregnancies who delivered
after completing 37 weeks of gestation. Multiple pregnancies of one individual were
not excluded, since repeated observations had no statistical effect. We excluded cases
of fetal death and cases for which information about maternal pre-pregnancy weight,
height and weight gain during pregnancy were lacking. 12 701 cases were included in
statistical analysis ([Fig. 1]). The local ethics committee of Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany approved
this analysis (no. 5280 – 09/17).
Fig. 1 Cohort composition: the total cohort included 16 292 deliveries between 2003 and
2014. Non-singleton pregnancies, stillbirths, deliveries before 37 weeks of gestation
and cases where data on gestational weight gain were missing were excluded. A final
cohort consisting of 12 701 cases was analyzed.
Women were grouped into six weight categories (underweight [< 18.5 kg/m2], normal weight [18.5 – 24.9 kg/m2], overweight [25 – 29.9 kg/m2], obesity class I [30 – 34.9 kg/m2], obesity class II [35 – 39.9 kg/m2] and obesity class III [> 40 kg/m2]) according to the definitions of the World Health Organization [11].
We calculated gestational weight gain (GWG) as the difference between pre-pregnancy
weight and the last documented weight in pregnancy. Women were grouped according to
IOM criteria into “recommended weight gain” vs. “excessive weight gain” if their recommendations
had been exceeded [10].
Primary outcome was the rate of LGA children in the different groups.
LGA and small for gestational age status (SGA) were defined using Voigtʼs percentiles
for the body measurements of newborns which define LGA as above the 90th percentile
and SGA newborns as below 10th percentile [12].
Secondary outcomes were the development of pre-eclampsia, blood loss > 1000 ml, induction
of labor, mode of delivery, incidence of shoulder dystocia and admission of the newborn
to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).
Statistical analysis
All patients who met the inclusion criteria were included in our analysis. No prior
sample size estimation was performed. Categorical data were compared between groups
by χ2 test. Since most of the continuous data were not normally distributed, we used the
median for data presentation and description. Mann-Whitney U-test was performed to
compare continuous data between groups. Adjusted odds ratio (ORs) for estimating the
association between LGA, GWG, BMI and Diabetes were determined using multivariate
logistic regression. ORs are presented with a 95% confidence interval (CI). The potential
confounders “maternal age”, “weeks of gestation”, “parity” and “gender of the newborn”
were included in the statistical analysis as covariates and are presented in footnotes.
We did not find evidence for multicollinearity in our multivariate models. Generalized
estimating equations were used to prove that there was no effect of repeated observations
due to multiple deliveries by one individual. Statistical analysis was performed using
SPSS 23.0. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Results
Pregnancies resulting in LGA newborns are associated with higher rates of adverse
pregnancy outcomes
Cohort characteristics are shown in [Table 2]. LGA pregnancies were associated with maternal risk factors such as overweight and
obesity, diabetes and gestational weight gain. Furthermore LGA deliveries were significantly
associated with higher rates of shoulder dystocia (2.1 vs. 0.3%; p < 0.01), caesarean
section (30 vs. 21%; p < 0.01), postpartum hemorrhage of more than 1000 ml (6.25 vs.
3.3%; p < 0.01) and admission to the neonatal intensive care unit (6 vs. 3.7%; p < 0.01).
We did not find a difference with regard to the rates of pre-eclampsia (2.6 vs. 2.6%;
n. s.) and induction of birth (29.9 vs. 28.5%) in the two groups ([Table 2]).
Table 2 Cohort characteristics.
|
Total cohort
n = 12 701
|
LGA
n = 1191
|
AGA
n = 10 362
|
p*
|
|
Data are presented as n (%) or median and interquartile range unless otherwise specified.
AGA: appropriate for gestational age baby; BMI: body mass index; LGA: large for gestational
age baby
* significant difference between AGA and LGA
|
|
LGA
|
1191 (9.4%)
|
|
|
|
|
Maternal age (years)
|
29 (26 – 33)
|
30 (27 – 34)
|
29 (26 – 33)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Parity
|
1 (0 – 1)
|
1 (0 – 2)
|
1 (0 – 1)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Diabetes
|
671 (5.3%)
|
105 (8.8%)
|
531 (5.1)
|
< 0.01
|
|
BMI (kg/m2)
|
22.31 (20.55 – 25.15)
|
23.67 (21.61 – 27.31)
|
22.23 (20.55 – 25.01)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Underweight
|
690 (5.4%)
|
21 (1.8%)
|
562 (5.4%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Normal weight
|
8747 (68.9%)
|
712 (59.8%)
|
7207 (69.6%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Overweight
|
2163 (17%)
|
273 (22.9%)
|
1743 (16.8%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Obese I°
|
735 (5.8%)
|
115 (9.7%)
|
573 (5.5%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Obese II°
|
260 (2%)
|
45 (3.8%)
|
204 (2.0%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Obese III°
|
106 (0.8%)
|
25 (2.1%)
|
73 (0.7%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Below recommended weight gain
|
2720 (21.4%)
|
150 (12.6%)
|
2184 (21.1%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Recommended weight gain
|
4263 (33.6%)
|
282 (23.7%)
|
3554 (34.3%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Excessive weight gain
|
5718 (45%)
|
759 (63.7%)
|
4624 (44.6%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Weight gain in kg
|
15 (11 – 18)
|
17 (12 – 21)
|
15 (11 – 18)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Pre-eclampsia
|
345 (2.7%)
|
31 (2.6%)
|
270 (2.6%)
|
n. s.
|
|
Bleeding > 1000 ml
|
439 (3.5%)
|
74 (6.2%)
|
343 (3.3%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Induction of birth
|
3739 (29.4%)
|
356 (29.9%)
|
2957 (28.5%)
|
n. s.
|
|
Cesarean section
|
2862 (22.5%)
|
357 (30%)
|
2181 (21%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Instrumental delivery
|
844 (6.6%)
|
57 (4.8%)
|
712 (6.9%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Spontaneous birth
|
8995 (70.8%)
|
777 (65.2%)
|
7469 (72.1%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
Shoulder dystocia
|
53 (0.4%)
|
25 (2.1%)
|
28 (0.3%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
GA at delivery
|
39.86 (39.0 – 40.57)
|
39.86 (38.86 – 40.57)
|
39.86 (39 – 40.57)
|
n. s.
|
|
Male sex
|
6465 (50.9%)
|
614 (51.6%)
|
5279 (50.9%)
|
n. s.
|
|
Female sex
|
6236 (49.1%)
|
577 (48.4%)
|
5083 (49.1%)
|
n. s.
|
|
Birth weight
|
3430 (3140 – 3730)
|
4210 (4050 – 4380)
|
3430 (3200 – 3660)
|
< 0.01
|
|
NICU admission
|
611 (4.8%)
|
72 (6%)
|
386 (3.7%)
|
< 0.01
|
|
LGA
|
1191 (9.4%)
|
|
|
|
|
SGA
|
1142 (9%)
|
|
|
|
|
AGA
|
10 362 (81.6%)
|
|
|
|
Diabetes in pregnancy, maternal BMI and excessive gestational weight gain are associated
with increased risk of LGA birth
Unadjusted analysis showed maternal class II and III obesity to be the major risk
factor for delivery of a LGA newborn (II° vs. non-obesity OR = 2.36 [95% CI: 1.7 – 3.28];
III° OR = 3.48 [95% CI: 2.21 – 5.49]), followed by gestational weight gain exceeding
IOM recommendations (OR = 2.32 [95% CI: 2.05 – 2.63]) and diabetes (OR = 1.87 [95%
CI: 1.51 – 2.32]) ([Table 3]).
Table 3 Unadjusted odds ratios for large for gestational age.
|
|
Diabetes
|
GWG
|
Pre-gravid BMI
|
|
Total cohort
n = 12 701
|
No diabetes
n = 12 030
|
Diabetes
n = 671
|
Recommended GWG
n = 6983
|
Excessive GWG
n = 5718
|
Underweight
n = 690
|
Normal weight
n = 8747
|
Overweight
n = 2163
|
Obese I°
n = 735
|
Obese II°
n = 260
|
Obese III°
n = 106
|
|
* significant difference between subgroups of the three main groups Diabetes, GWG
and Pre-gravid BMI, calculated using χ2 (p < 0.05)
** significant ORs for No diabetes vs. Diabetes, Recommended GWG vs. Excessive GWG
and each BMI class compared to normal weight class
BMI: body mass index; GWG: gestational weight gain; LGA: large for gestation age;
OR: odds ratio
|
|
|
94.7%
|
5.3%
|
55%
|
45%
|
5.4%
|
68.9%
|
17%
|
5.8%
|
2.0%
|
0.8%
|
|
LGA
|
1191
|
1086
|
105
|
432
|
759
|
21
|
712
|
273
|
115
|
45
|
25
|
|
9.4%
|
9%
|
15.7%*
|
6.1%
|
13.3%*
|
3%
|
8.1%
|
12.6%
|
15.7%
|
17.3%
|
23.6%*
|
|
Diabetes
|
671
|
|
|
349
|
322
|
14
|
290
|
187
|
94
|
61
|
25
|
|
5.3%
|
|
|
4.9%
|
5.6%
|
2.0%
|
3.3%
|
8.6%
|
12.8%
|
23.5%
|
23.6%*
|
|
Excessive weight gain
|
5718
|
5396
|
322
|
|
|
161
|
3359
|
1503
|
512
|
136
|
47
|
|
45%
|
44.9%
|
48%
|
|
|
23.3%
|
38.4%
|
69.5%
|
69.7%
|
52.3%
|
44.3%*
|
|
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)
|
|
1.87**
(1.51 – 2.32)
|
2.32**
(2.05 – 2.63)
|
0.35**
(0.23 – 0.55)
|
Reference
|
1.63**
(1.41 – 1.89)
|
2.10**
(1.69 – 2.59)
|
2.36**
(1.70 – 3.28)
|
3.48**
(2.21 – 5.49)
|
For underweight and normal weight women, the risk of LGA birth is strongly influenced
by diabetes
For women with gestational diabetes, the adjusted OR for giving birth to an LGA newborn
was 11.818 (95% CI: 1.156 – 120.782) for underweight women, 1.564 (95% CI:1.013 – 2.415)
for normal weight women, 1.242 (95% CI: 0.745 – 2.071) for overweight women, 0.859
(95% CI: 0.41 – 1.797) for women with class I obesity, 1.198 (95% CI: 0.463.3.097)
for women with class II obesity, and 2.394 (95% CI: 0.485 – 11.825) for women with
class III obesity ([Table 4]).
Table 4 Risk of LGA birth for different BMI categories (overall and per kg weight gain).
|
BMI group (n = 9243)
|
Adjusted ORs1 for LGA
|
OR per kg GWG
|
|
ORs
|
95% CI
|
ORs
|
95% CI
|
|
1 Adjustments were made for maternal age, parity, gestational age and sex of newborn
BMI: body mass index; CI: confidence interval; GWG: gestational weight gain, LGA:
large for gestational age
* p < 0.05
Bold = significant results
|
|
Underweight (n = 485)
|
Recommended GWG
|
1.170
|
0.221 – 6.203
|
1.123
|
0.981 – 1.286
|
|
Excessive GWG
|
0.854
|
0.161 – 4.529
|
|
Diabetes
|
11.818*
|
1.156 – 120.782
|
|
Normal weight (n = 6281)
|
Recommended GWG
|
0.763
|
0.580 – 1.004
|
1.078*
|
1.052 – 1.104
|
|
Excessive GWG
|
1.310
|
0.996 – 1.725
|
|
Diabetes
|
1.564*
|
1.013 – 2.415
|
|
Overweight (n = 1647)
|
Recommended GWG
|
0.772
|
0.486 – 1.225
|
1.058*
|
1.026 – 1.090
|
|
Excessive GWG
|
1.296
|
0.816 – 2.058
|
|
Diabetes
|
1.242
|
0.745 – 2.071
|
|
Obese I° (n = 557)
|
Recommended GWG
|
1.179
|
0.594 – 2.341
|
1.046
|
0.997 – 1.098
|
|
Excessive GWG
|
0.848
|
0.427 – 1.684
|
|
Diabetes
|
0.859
|
0.410 – 1.797
|
|
Obese II° (n = 189)
|
Recommended GWG
|
0.658
|
0.182 – 2.373
|
1.046
|
0.956 – 1.145
|
|
Excessive GWG
|
1.521
|
0.421 – 5.488
|
|
Diabetes
|
1.198
|
0.463 – 3.097
|
|
Obese III° (n = 84)
|
Recommended GWG
|
2.394
|
0.485 – 11.825
|
1.084
|
0.969 – 1.214
|
|
Excessive GWG
|
0.418
|
0.085 – 2.064
|
|
Diabetes
|
2.394
|
0.485 – 11.825
|
Excessive gestational weight gain particularly affects the risk of LGA birth
Adjusted analysis showed that the OR for LGA was 1.249 (95% CI: 1.018 – 1.533) for
gestational weight gain exceeding IOM recommendations, 1.083 (95% CI: 1.066 – 1.099)
for BMI and 1.315 (95% CI: 0.997 – 1.734) for diabetes, revealing LGA being the most
relevant. Gestational weight gain which remained within the range recommended by the
IOM reduced the risk of an LGA birth by 20% (OR = 0.801 [95% CI: 0.652 – 0.982]).
Overall, the risk of giving birth to an LGA infant increased by 6.9% with each kg
weight gain ([Table 5]).
Table 5 Adjusted odds ratios for LGA birth.
|
Adjusted ORs1 for LGA
|
|
OR
|
CI
|
|
1 Adjustments were made for maternal age, parity, gestational age and sex of newborn
BMI: body mass index; CI: confidence interval; GWG: gestational weight gain; LGA:
large for gestational age; OR: odds ratio
* p < 0.05
Bold = significant results
|
|
Total cohort (n = 9243)
|
Recommended GWG
|
0.801*
|
0.652 – 0.982
|
|
Excessive GWG
|
1.249*
|
1.018 – 1.533
|
|
BMI (kg/m2)
|
1.083*
|
1.066 – 1.099
|
|
Diabetes
|
1.315
|
0.997 – 1.734
|
|
GWG per kg
|
1.069*
|
1.052 – 1.087
|
For normal weight and overweight women, the risk of LGA birth increases significantly
with each kg weight gain
When analysis focused on BMI classes, it was found that the risk of an LGA birth rose
significantly in the group of normal weight women, increasing by 7.8% per kg weight
gain (OR = 1.078 [95% CI: 1.052 – 1.104]) and by 5.8% in the group of overweight women
(OR = 1.058 [95% CI: 1.026 – 1.09]) ([Fig. 2]).
Fig. 2 Adjusted ORs for LGA birth per kg weight gain. Adjusted ORs are shown for different
classes of pre-gravid BMI. ORs showing a significant increase per kg weight gain are
indicated with an asterisk (* p < 0.05).
Discussion
Pregnancies resulting in the birth of LGA infants are associated with adverse obstetric
and neonatal outcomes ([Table 2]). Our data showed that contributing risk factors for an LGA infant in our cohort
were obesity prior to pregnancy, followed by gestational weight gain exceeding the
IOM recommendations. Diabetes had a low, but still significant, impact ([Table 3]). However, multivariate analysis of the effects on fetal LGA rates showed that ultimately
the effect of diabetes was not significant and that gestational weight gain exceeding
IOM recommendations had the most significant impact on the risk of giving birth to
an LGA infant. Effectively, LGA rates increased by 6.9% (OR: 1.069 [95% CI: 1.052 – 1.087])
per kg weight gain. These findings are both remarkable and important, since gestational
weight gain may be influenced by counseling and could be controlled during pregnancy.
This is particularly important as multivariate regression analysis for each BMI class
revealed that women who are of normal weight or overweight but not obese before pregnancy
have the highest risk of an LGA fetus when their gestational weight gain exceeds IOM
recommendations ([Fig. 2]). Our data also show that keeping maternal gestational weight gain within the recommended
values decreased the risk of an LGA birth by nearly 20% (OR: 0.801 [95% CI: 0.652 – 0.982]).
By comparison, excessive gestational weight gain increased the risk for LGA by 24.9%
(OR 1.249 CI 1.018 – 1.533) ([Table 5]). In our data, diabetes only had a significant effect on LGA in the group of underweight
women (OR: 11.818 [95% CI: 1.156 – 120.782]) and the group of normal weight women
(OR: 1.564 [95% CI: 1.013 – 2.415) but not in the obese groups.
Our data are in accordance with the literature. A number of publications have reported
that gestational weight gain is strongly associated with LGA rates [13], [14], [15]. Bloomberg and colleagues compared the influence of gestational weight gain in different
classes of obese women. They also calculated odds ratios for LGA for women with excessive
weight gain and reported an OR of 1.96 (1.80 – 2.14) for women with class I obesity,
an OR of 1.87 (1.63 – 2.15) for women with class II obesity and an OR of 1.62 (1.29 – 2.03)
for women with class III obesity. This effect within the different obesity classes
could not be confirmed in our study, most probably because of different definitions
of LGA. However, the authors concluded that obese women (class II and III) who lose
weight during pregnancy appear to have a decreased risk of adverse obstetric outcomes
including LGA births [16]. Kim et al. reported that maternal overweight and obesity, excessive gestational
weight gain, and gestational diabetes were associated with LGA and concluded that
preventing excessive gestational weight gain has the greatest potential to reduce
the risk of LGA births. They also found considerably higher ORs for LGA for white
women without diabetes who gained excessive weight, had a BMI of less than 25 (OR
15.1 [95% CI: 14.5 – 15.7]) or a BMI of 25 or greater (OR 23.8 [95% CI: 32.2 – 24.4])
compared to women with gestational diabetes mellitus and normal weight gain [17]. Zhao et al. showed that women with an abnormal pre-pregnancy body mass index and
excessive gestational weight gain are at risk of adverse birth weight outcomes. In
accordance with our findings, Zhao also concluded that gestational weight gain has
a differential effect on the rates of adverse birth weight outcomes for women with
different pre-pregnancy body mass index categories. They also reported the highest
adjusted ORs for LGA and macrosomia (defined here as birth weight > 4000 g) for normal
weight women with a gestational weight gain which exceeded IOM recommendations. However,
the authors did not adjust for gestational diabetes. They concluded that gestational
weight gain is an independent predictor of LGA, a suggestion which has now been confirmed
further by our study [18]. In a big Chinese cohort, Du and colleagues investigated the effects of pre-pregnancy
BMI and gestational weight gain on neonatal birth weight and showed that in women
with a lower pre-pregnancy BMI, gestational weight gain had a stronger positive effect
on neonatal birth weight [19].
The importance of gestational weight gain as an independent risk factor for LGA was
also emphasized by Kominiarek et al. Similar to our findings, they reported that 37%
(38.4% in our cohort) of normal weight women and 64% (69.5% in our cohort) of overweight
(but non-obese) women gained more weight during pregnancy than recommended by the
IOM ([Table 3]). The authors suggested that gestational weight gain could be a potentially modifiable
risk factor for a number of adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes, as recent meta-analyses
of randomized controlled trials have reported that diet or exercise interventions
during pregnancy can help to reduce excessive gestational weight gain. But the authors
noted that, so far, health behavior interventions to reduce gestational weight gain
have not significantly improved maternal and neonatal outcomes and have only shown
limited effectiveness among overweight and obese women and thus need to be improved
[14]. Recommendations to reduce weight gain during pregnancy have been published. For
obese women, it has already been shown that gestational weight gain below the national
recommendations for obese mothers (5 – 9 kg) does not adversely affect fetal growth,
gestational age at delivery, or mode of delivery [20]. Consequently, recommendations on gestational weight gain have been included in
the updated version of the guidelines on the diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of
gestational diabetes [21], [22].
The obvious limitations of our study are its retrospective nature and the reliability
of the electronic medical records, which resulted in a 10% exclusion rate because
of missing data. Additionally, because of how the data was recorded in the database,
the risk factor “diabetes” subsumed both gestational diabetes (GDM) and pre-existing
diabetes. However, fewer than 2% of women who give birth in our university hospital
suffer from pre-existing diabetes, which means that GDM is the predominant diabetic
disorder of pregnant women in our study. Since information on glycemic control was
not available for the non-diabetic cohort, we could not include this variable in our
analysis. All women diagnosed with diabetes during pregnancy were diagnosed and treated
according to the latest guidelines. After 2006, the diagnostic criteria for GDM used
in our department strictly followed the IADPSG recommendations. General screening
for GDM became a standard part of maternity care in 2012. These timings mean that
our study may potentially have an additional bias due to the changes in diagnostic
strategies. One of the strengths of our study is the large number of mother-infant
dyads.
Conclusion
Being born large for gestational age has a lifelong impact on individual health. Multiple
factors influence fetal birth weight. Overnutrition associated with excessive gestational
weight gain and poorly controlled diabetes are risk factors which are possibly preventable.
In our cohort, 38.4% of normal weight women and 69.5% ([Table 3]) of overweight women had excessive weight gain in pregnancy, accounting for nearly
40% of the total cohort. These women are therefore a target cohort for intervention,
as each additional prevented kilogram weight gain during pregnancy can reduce the
risk for LGA by more than 5%. Counseling on avoiding excessive gestational weight
gain, dietary and exercise recommendations and information about the benefits which
could be achieved by avoiding excessive weight gain should be mandatory, not only
for obese women but also and especially for normal weight women and moderately overweight
women. Thus, the implementation of structured counseling programs could have a significant
effect on the increase in childhood obesity rates by reducing the risk factor of LGA
birth.
