IV Guideline
1 Definition
Consensus-based recommendation 1.E1
Expert consensus
Level of consensus ++
The terms “candidosis” and “Candida vulvovaginitis” should be used in preference to the term “candidiasis”.
VVC is an infection of the substantially estrogenized vagina and vestibulum, which
can spread to the external surface of the labia minora and the labia majora as well
as to the intercrural and perianal region. There are no known cases of candidosis
of the cervix or the endometrium. Congenital fetal candidosis and Candida amnionitis are very rare but possible. The terms “candidosis” or “Candida albicans vulvovaginitis” are preferred [1 ]. The ending “-iasis” should be reserved for parasitic infections (e.g., trichomoniasis)
[2 ] but is often used because of its widespread use in English-language texts.
2 Microbiology
Consensus-based statement 2.S1
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
The most commonly detected fungal organism in premenopausal, pregnant, asymptomatic,
healthy women and women with acute VVC (with no history of chronic recurrent VVC)
is Candida albicans .
In vitro, Candida albicans forms blastospores, germ tubes, pseudomycelia, and true mycelia as well as chlamydospores
on special culture medium. Candida glabrata only forms blastospores. Pseudohyphae formation (with the exception of C. glabrata and some other Candida types, which occur in the form of blastospores) is an indication of infection [3 ], [4 ]. In premenopausal, pregnant, asymptomatic and healthy women as well as women with
acute VVC, C. albicans is the causative species in 85 – 95% of cases. This species (spp.) is very similar
to C. africana which can only be identified with the help of special diagnostic procedures [5 ], [6 ]. Precise epidemiological data for this are lacking. There are regional differences
in the distribution of Candida species, although studies from German-speaking [7 ], [8 ] and English-speaking [9 ] areas report similar numbers. In a retrospective PCR-based analysis of 93 775 cervicovaginal
smears over 4 years which were taken to evaluate the cause of VVC, C. albicans was present in 89%, C. glabrata in 7.9% and other Candida species in less than 2% of cases [10 ]. Non-Candida albicans types, particularly C. glabrata , are found more often in postmenopausal, diabetic, and immunosuppressed women [8 ], [11 ], [12 ], [13 ], [14 ], [15 ], [16 ]. C. krusei , C. guilliermondii , C. tropicalis , C. parapsilosis and other species may cause vulvovaginitis
and its typical symptoms in individual cases [4 ], [8 ], [17 ], [18 ], [19 ]. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is basically apathogenic and therefore causes no symptoms [20 ], [21 ], even if it is present as a commensal organism in 1 – 2% of vaginal cultures [8 ], [15 ].
3 Virulence factors
Consensus-based statement 3.S2
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
The step from colonization to vaginitis is still not well understood and confirms
the importance of host factors.
The pathogenesis of VVC depends not only on the virulence of the pathogen but also
on the individualʼs predisposition and immune response. Yeast pathogens are generally
typical opportunists which can cause infection when the local or systemic immune response
is weak. It is still not clear why simple colonization with Candida in a healthy person can result in an acute, highly infectious disorder.
The lack of knowledge about the shift from colonization to vaginitis confirms the
importance of host factors [22 ]. Colonization is followed by adherence to the vaginal epithelium, then by invasion,
infection and inflammation aided by the pathogenʼs virulence factors. Fungal components
are created during pseudohyphae formation, stimulating strong chemotaxis by granulocytes
which then causes inflammation [23 ].
Adherence of Candida cells [24 ] to the vaginal wall is facilitated by mannoproteins [25 ], [26 ]. The ability to form (pseudo) hyphae and secrete hydrolytic proteins are relevant
virulence factors [27 ], [28 ], [29 ], which are correlated with pathogenicity [30 ], [31 ]. Siderophores and pH tolerance [32 ] as well as the presence of enzymes which allow Candida albicans to survive in macrophages [33 ] are other important mechanisms for the development of infection.
In an acute infection, the formation of virulence factors and immune-inflammatory
factors appears to activate the inflammasomes of the vaginal epithelial cells. Components
of the fungal wall such as glucan, mannan and chitin bind to specific macrophage receptors
and stimulate different cytokines [34 ]. One of the preconditions for invasion by Candida is the yeast-hypha transition, which is encouraged by the presence of estrogens,
as fungi contain cytoplasmic estrogen receptors [35 ].
4 Genital colonization
Consensus-based statement 4.S3
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
Simple colonization with Candida species is common, often transient, and usually does not require treatment unless
it occurs during pregnancy.
As colonization is connected to vaginal estrogenization, it is far less common in
girls who have not yet begun menstruating or women after menopause (who are not taking
hormone replacement therapy) and they almost never have VVC [36 ]. Overall, there is no clear indication for an increased incidence of candidosis
in gynecology, neither acute nor chronic recurrent disease. According to the results
from culture-based detection methods, around 30% of pregnant women are affected in
the third trimester of pregnancy [8 ], [16 ].
The use of PCR significantly improves the detection of vaginal colonization [37 ]. However, the extent of vaginal colonization will vary at different times in each
individual. It should be noted that positive findings for C. glabrata usually only indicate colonization. Risk factors for colonization with Candida spp., which occurs in around 70% of all young healthy women, are reported to be recent
sexual intercourse, injection of the ovulation inhibitor medroxyprogesterone acetate
(MPA) and colonization with lactobacilli and group B Streptococcus (GBS) [38 ].
The partnerʼs sperm may be colonized by the identical Candida strain found in the vagina [39 ], even though the partner may be asymptomatic. Candida balanitis requires treatment; however, temporary redness of the glans after sexual
intercourse with a Candida -colonized woman may also be a reaction. It is not clear whether colonization of the
partnerʼs genital tract or of the orointestinal tract of both partners could play
a role as the source of chronic recurrent episodes of Candida vaginitis [4 ], [40 ].
5 Predisposing host factors
Consensus-based recommendation 5.E2
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
Around 70 – 75% of all women will suffer from VVC at least once in their lifetime,
although there are some higher risk groups for whom, in addition to appropriate diagnosis
and treatment of VVC, the aim should also be to eliminate the predisposing host factor
(where possible).
5.1 Diabetes mellitus
Patients with diabetes mellitus suffer more often from VVC, and treatment usually
fails when serum glucose levels are not within normal ranges [11 ], [41 ]. Increased glycemia in vaginal tissue increases fungal adhesion and fungal growth
and predisposes vaginal epithelial cells to bind yeast cells. Moreover, glucose levels
of 10 – 11 mmol/l impairs the hostʼs defense mechanism. Hyperglycemia reduces neutrophil
migration and weakens their chemotactic and phagocytic ability, increasing the hostʼs
susceptibility to VVC [42 ], [43 ]. Antidiabetic SGLT2 inhibitors increase glycosuria, thereby also increasing the
number of episodes of VVC [44 ], [45 ], [46 ]. If diabetic women experience recurrent episodes of VVC, their antidiabetic medication
may need to be
checked and adjusted [47 ].
5.2 Antibiotics
Women with prior vaginal Candida colonization have a 33% higher risk of developing VVC after treatment with antibiotics
[48 ], [49 ], [50 ], [51 ]. The most commonly prescribed and most effective prophylaxis against VVC is to take
150 mg fluconazole when also taking antibiotics, with fluconazole taken either at
the beginning and at the end of the course of antibiotics or just once a week. Another
option consists of taking oral or vaginal probiotics when taking antibiotics [52 ].
5.3 Vaginal microbiota
Lower numbers of lactobacilli were found in women with VVC compared to those without
VVC [53 ]. Certain lactobacilli have an antagonistic effect on Candida species [54 ], [55 ]. This antagonistic effect has been reported for special strains such as Lactobacillus rhamnosus
[56 ], [57 ], [58 ], [59 ], [60 ]. The protection proved by lactobacilli is primarily based on the ability of lactobacilli
to adhere to vaginal epithelial cells, thereby inhibiting the growth of pathogens
[61 ].
5.4 Hormonal factors
The glycogen stored in the vaginal epithelium under the influence of estrogen serves
as a nutritive medium for fungi [62 ]. Estrogens also promote the formation of inhibitors by epithelial cells which hinder
the antimycotic function of granulocytes, leading to leukocyte anergy [23 ], [47 ], [63 ]. Because of the association with estrogen levels and high glycogen levels, VVC symptoms
are usually reported mid-cycle or in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, with
symptoms decreasing rapidly during menstruation [62 ]. Postmenopausal women are significantly more often affected by VVC if they are taking
hormone replacement therapy [64 ].
5.5 Contraceptives
It has been reported that taking oral contraceptives increases the incidence of VVC,
but this appears to depend on the dosage of the estrogen component [65 ]. Progestogens by themselves appear to exert a protective effect against VVC [47 ], [66 ]. As regards the use of contraceptive coils, Donders et al. [43 ] recommend that women with chronic RVVC and women who have an increased risk of VVC
should avoid levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine systems (LNG-IUS).
5.6 Genetic factors
Genetic factors (e.g., gene polymorphisms of mannose-binding lectin [67 ], [68 ] and non-secretor phenotypes of AB0 and Lewis blood groups) may also be responsible
for relapses of VVC [69 ]. As infection equals colonization plus disposition, immunosuppressed women suffer
more often from VVC [70 ]. Ab-producing B cells are considered to offer some protection against VVC [71 ], [72 ], [73 ], [74 ], [75 ]. Women with atopic diathesis and type I allergies develop VVC more often than healthy
women do [76 ].
5.7 Lifestyle factors
Sexual behavior may result in a relapse of VVC [48 ], [77 ], [78 ]. It is presumed that psychosocial stress may trigger chronic RVVC due to immunosuppression
[79 ], [80 ]. Candidosis has a negative impact on patientsʼ work life and social life. Some specialists
are also of the opinion that patientsʼ diet may be relevant for the development of
VVC [81 ], [82 ].
6 Clinical symptoms
Consensus-based statement 6.S4
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
The main symptom of VVC is itching, although not all women who complain of itching
actually have VVC. In addition to itching, affected women often also complain of vaginal
redness, soreness, burning, dyspareunia and dysuria. These symptoms by themselves
are not sufficient to reliably differentiate between the causes of vaginitis.
Premenopausal women usually suffer from vaginal candidosis, which can spread to the
vestibulum and the vulva, while postmenopausal women primarily experience symptoms
in the groin/inguinal area and the vulva. Candida cervicitis is unknown. In premenopausal women, symptoms typically occur prior to
menstruation, when estrogen-induced cell proliferation and progesterone-induced cytolysis
release glycogen which is then metabolized by lactobacilli, leading to increased tissue
glucose levels [83 ].
From a clinical and therapeutic standpoint, differentiating between complicated and
uncomplicated cases is recommended [4 ]. In around 90% of cases, itching is the most important although not the most reliable
symptom; only 35 – 40% of women who complain of itching actually have VVC [8 ], [37 ], [84 ]. Vaginal discharge may vary. At the start of an episode of VVC, the consistency
of discharge is often thin, usually whitish and curdy, while there may be no discharge
at all in cases with chronic RVVC [42 ], [85 ]. In contrast to bacterial vaginosis, the discharge occurring with VVC does not have
an offensive smell [42 ].
In addition to itching of the vulva and/or in the vagina, most patients with VVC complain
of vaginal redness, soreness, burning, dyspareunia and dysuria [42 ]. But these symptoms by themselves often do not permit the clinician to reliably
differentiate between the causes of vaginitis. Itching and redness are not always
present in VVC [84 ]. The labia minora may be edematous, while burning fissuring is common, especially
in cases with RVVC.
Typical VVC symptoms are usually caused by C. albicans ; C. glabrata vaginitis is rare and usually only occurs in late premenopause and perimenopause
[9 ], [17 ], [86 ], [87 ], [88 ]. C. krusei vaginitis [19 ] and C. parapsilosis vaginitis [18 ] have a similar presentation as C. glabrata vaginitis, with only mild clinical symptoms. Saccharomyces cerevisiae are an unlikely cause of vaginitis [20 ], [21 ], [89 ]. Dermatologically, vulvar candidosis is differentiated into vesicular, eczematoid
and follicular forms. Women with secondary vestibulodynia often report VVC prior to
an episode of vestibular pain.
Overall, VVC symptoms result in a reduction of patientsʼ quality of life comparable
to that of patients suffering from bronchial asthma or chronic, obstructive bronchitis.
VVC is therefore also associated with significantly lower productivity in professional
and daily life [90 ].
7 Diagnostic procedures
Consensus-based recommendation 7.E3
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
The diagnosis of VVC must be based on a combination of clinical examination and microscopic
evidence of (pseudo) hyphae, although in unclear cases, diagnostic procedures should
be expanded to include culture tests.
7.1 Necessary diagnostic procedures
Consensus-based recommendation 7.E4
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
The first diagnostic step must consist of microscopic examination of the discharge
using a saline solution and 400 × magnification.
To obtain a diagnosis, (pseudo) hyphae must be present to allow detection of Candida -related vaginitis and differentiate it from asymptomatic colonization. The diagnosis
must be based on the patientʼs history, a gynecological examination, and microscopic
examination of the vaginal discharge using a saline solution (or alternatively a 10%
potassium hydroxide solution) at a magnification of at least 400 × (10 × ocular lens
plus 40 × objective lens) under a light microscope or phase-contrast microscope [20 ], [91 ]. pH measurement may also be done, if necessary. Blastospores or (pseudo) hyphae
are found on microscopic examination in around 50 – 80% of cases with acute VVC [4 ], [92 ]. An increased number of leukocytes may be found in the discharge, although that
is not always necessarily the case. If no blastospores or (pseudo) hyphae are
found on microscopic examination, the number of pathogens is probably so low
that microscopic examination, which has a low sensitivity, will be negative. As culturing
is more sensitive and because infection may be triggered even if the fungal load is
low, culturing and determination of species should be done, especially in patients
with chronic RVVC. As resistance is not correlated with the MIC, their identification
is not of primary importance [83 ], [93 ], [94 ].
The typical medium used in the culture-based diagnosis of Candida species is Sabouraud 2% glucose agar. Other media include CHROMagar™ and Mikrostix-Candida . Chromogenic culture media offer the opportunity to identify specific Candida spp. immediately, based on their pigmentation, making it easier to identify and differentiate
mixed cultures when several different yeast strains are present. In such cases, the
patient will typically be suffering from C. albicans vaginitis, while the generally resistant C. glabrata often remains in situ following treatment. C. glabrata is usually only present in the form of colonization and treatment is not required
if symptoms are absent. In vitro sensitivity testing should only be considered if
non-Candida albicans species are present and in cases with chronic recurrent infection.
Modern DNA hybridization testing of the vaginal discharge obtained from the speculum
used for the gynecological examination has a sensitivity and specificity of up to
96.3% for the detection of Candida spp. [95 ]. Detection based on whole genome sequencing has the highest sensitivity and specificity
of all Candida diagnostic procedures [96 ].
7.2 Unnecessary diagnostic procedures
Consensus-based statement 7.S5
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
Serological tests, particularly tests to determine antibody levels, are not useful
for diagnosing VVC.
8 Therapy
Consensus-based recommendation 8.E5
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
Acute VVC should be treated either with topical or oral antifungals, according to
the individual womanʼs requirements, while the primary therapy for chronic RVVC should
be oral therapy, possibly in the form of long-term suppressive therapy.
8.1 Therapy for acute Candida vaginitis
Consensus-based statement 8.S6
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
The use topical or oral imidazole derivates, polyenes or ciclopiroxolamine to treat
acute VVC will result in the same therapeutic success. Treatment of an asymptomatic
sexual partner is not indicated in cases with acute VVC.
Asymptomatic vaginal colonization does not require treatment, even if high numbers
of pathogens are present, as long as the patient is immunocompetent and does not suffer
from chronic RVVC. If infection is present, the patient will require treatment even
when the pathogen count is low. There are numerous therapeutic options [97 ]. The following substances are used for treatment: azoles prevent the conversion
of lanosterol to ergosterol in yeast cell membranes [98 ]; polyenes form complexes using the ergosterol in yeast cell membranes and changing
their permeability [99 ]; ciclopirox olamine hampers important iron-dependent enzymes through the formation
of chelate [100 ]. A lower-dosage suppressive therapy may be considered for patients with chronic
RVVC. Such a regimen would consist of 200 mg oral fluconazole 3 days per week (for
1 week); if
the patient is then symptom-free and mycology tests are negative, maintenance
therapy is continued with 200 mg oral fluconazole once a week for 2 months, then every
2 weeks for 4 months, and finally once a month for 6 months.
Vaginal suppositories and creams are available in dosages and preparations for treatments
lasting between 1 and 3 days or between 6 and 7 days [101 ]. Alternative treatment options for non-pregnant women consist of oral triazoles
(fluconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole, voriconazole), polyenes (nystatin) [4 ], [102 ], [103 ], or ciclopirox olamine ([Table 5 ]) [104 ].
Table 5 Treatment options for acute Candida vaginitis.
Topical therapy (for a first-time manifestation)
Clotrimazole
200 mg vaginal tablets 1 × daily for 3 days
single 500 mg vaginal tablet
Econazole
150 mg vaginal suppository 2 × daily every 12 hours
150 mg vaginal suppository 1 × daily for 3 days
Fenticonazole
600 mg vaginal capsule 1 × daily
Repeat if required
Isoconazole
150 mg vaginal suppository 2 × daily every 12 hours
150 mg vaginal suppository 1 × daily for 3 days
single 600 mg vaginal suppository
Alternative therapies (in cases with a massive first-time manifestation)
Fluconazole
single oral 150 mg dose
50 mg orally 1 × daily for 7 – 14 days
100 mg orally 1 × daily for 14 days
For immunosuppressed patients
Itraconazole
100 mg orally 2 × 2 capsules daily postprandial
100 mg orally 1 × 2 capsules daily for 3 days
Nystatin
100 000 IU vaginal tablet for 14 days
200 000 IU vaginal tablet for 6 days
Ciclopiroxolamine
50 mg (1 applicator filling) 1 × daily for 6 – 14 days
poss. procured through an international pharmacy
8.2 Side effects
Consensus-based statement 8.S7
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
All established vaginal and topical antifungals are well tolerated.
All established vaginal and topical antifungals are tolerated well. Azoles and ciclopirox
olamine may cause slight local burning in 1 – 10% of cases [7 ], [103 ]. Unfortunately, local irritation leads to a reduction in patient compliance and
may be mistakenly interpreted as resistance to therapy [105 ]. Allergic reactions are possible but rare. Hydrophilic fluconazole and lipophilic
itraconazole rarely cause any side effects when administered using standard dosages.
In systemic therapy, however, itraconazole causes significantly more side effects
than fluconazole (e.g., anaphylactoid reactions, headaches, etc.). With systemic azole
therapy, it is important to be aware of possible interactions with other therapeutic
agents, particularly if they are metabolized through cytochrome P450 3A4 enzymes.
Prior to any topical application of azole antifungal agents, patients must be
informed that these agents may impair the functionality and reliability of rubbers
diaphragms and latex condoms.
8.3 Development of resistance
Consensus-based recommendation 8.E6
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
Unnecessary antifungal therapies may lead to resistance due to selection of less susceptible
strains and must therefore be avoided.
8.4 Therapy of non-Candida albicans vaginitis
Consensus-based recommendation 8.E7
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
Cases with chronic RVVC and non-Candida albicans vaginitis should be investigated to see whether the reported symptoms point to mycosis
and (after assessment for resistance) an alternate antifungal agent should generally
be used. This particularly applies when treating infections caused by Candida glabrata .
Although when Candida glabrata is detected, it is often only an indication of colonization, standard vaginal or
oral treatments will be unsuccessful when treating true Candida glabrata vaginitis. Topical administration of nystatin or ciclopirox olamine may be considered
for Candida glabrata vaginitis.
Candida krusei vaginitis is resistant to fluconazole and itraconazole and partially resistant to
posaconazole and some imidazoles. After starting primary therapy with topical 100 mg
clotrimazole for 2 weeks, therapy with ciclopirox olamine [20 ] or nystatin [19 ] may be initiated. There are almost no studies on the effects of treatment because
such cases are very rare.
While C. dubliniensis is sensitive to imidazole, it tends to develop resistance to fluconazole, particularly
when patients are receiving long-term therapy [106 ]. Vaginitis caused by C. tropicalis and C. guilliermondii should be treated like a conventional C. albicans vaginitis. C. kefyr is apathogenic and therefore unlikely to be the cause of vaginitis.
8.5 Therapy of chronic recurrent Candida vaginitis
Consensus-based recommendation 8.E8
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
Long-term antifungal treatment may be carried out to treat chronic RVVC, although
the level of evidence for different treatment regimens is low.
Therapy of acute VVC takes 1 – 7 days and consists of the short-term administration
of a typical active agent or the administration of a single dose, with cure rates
reported to be more than 80%. However, this does not apply to chronic RVVC. As infection
equals colonization plus disposition and therapies against disposition have not yet
been tested, topical or oral maintenance therapies (suppressive therapies) are recommended
for chronic RVVC to prevent relapse [107 ], [108 ], [109 ], [110 ], [111 ].
The results of therapies with 500 mg topical clotrimazole, 100 mg oral ketoconazole
or 150 mg oral fluconazole are comparable, but it should be noted that ketoconazole
is no longer available. In a randomized placebo-controlled study of 387 women treated
with 150 mg fluconazole once a week for 6 months, 42.9% of patients who received fluconazole
and 21.9% of patients who received placebo were disease-free after 12 months [110 ]. Topical nystatin appears to be similarly effective to treat chronic RVVC, particularly
non-Candida albicans and fluconazole-resistant strains [102 ].
For cases of chronic RVVC, Donders et al. [68 ], [112 ] recommend an initial dose of 200 mg fluconazole on 3 days in the first week, followed
by a maintenance regimen once the patient is symptom-free or fungi can no longer be
detected, consisting of a single dose of 200 mg fluconazole per month for a period
of one year ([Fig. 1 ]). With this regimen, about 90% were disease-free after 6 months and 77% after one
year [68 ], [112 ]. Women with familial atopy, longer duration of symptoms, or severe vaginal abrasion
have a higher risk of not responding to fluconazole maintenance therapy [113 ]. Fluconazole suppressive therapy appears to be highly effective in preventing VVC
symptoms but it is rarely curative [114 ]. Relapse often occurs after maintenance
therapy is discontinued.
Fig. 1 Maintenance therapy with fluconazole in patients with chronic recurrent vulvovaginal
candidosis.
Sexual behavior does not appear to be a risk factor for non-response to fluconazole
maintenance therapy in patients with chronic RVVC [115 ]. Asymptomatic sexual partners of patients who suffer from chronic RVVC do not require
treatment to reduce the recurrence rates of these women [115 ]. If a patientʼs partner experiences symptoms or yeast is detected on his penis or
in his sperm, a single dose of 150 mg fluconazole may be indicated for the partner.
For women with an intrauterine pessary who suffer from chronic RVVC, removal of the
intrauterine device should be considered, as affected women receiving maintenance
therapy only became recurrence-free after the intrauterine pessary was removed.
8.6 Therapy during pregnancy
Consensus-based recommendation 8.E9
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
During pregnancy, particularly in the first trimester of pregnancy, VVC must be treated
with topical clotrimazole to avoid the risk of fetal malformation or early miscarriage.
Several retrospective studies [116 ], [117 ], [118 ], [119 ] and a prospective randomized study [120 ] have reported a significant reduction in preterm births after vaginal treatment
with clotrimazole in women who had VVC in the first trimester of pregnancy. An Australian
study with a relatively small number of cases reported a tendency to a lower preterm
birth rate following treatment with clotrimazole in the first trimester of pregnancy
[121 ]. Another retrospective study reported an increased preterm birth rate in women with
recurrent asymptomatic Candida colonization in early pregnancy [122 ].
Almost all healthy neonates born at term who are colonized with C. albicans from the maternal vagina during vaginal birth develop oral thrush and/or diaper dermititis
in the first year of life, with the incidence peaking in the 2nd–4th week of life
[123 ], [124 ]. Topical treatment over 6 – 7 days in the last few weeks of pregnancy of pregnant
women with Candida colonization is therefore recommended to prevent colonization and subsequent infection
of neonates during vaginal birth.
The administration of fluconazole in typical gynecological dosages of 150 – 300 mg/day
was long considered harmless during pregnancy, although it was not approved for use
in pregnant women. Low doses of ≤ 150 mg do not appear to be associated with an embryopathic
risk [125 ]. However, an increased incidence of fetal tetralogy of Fallot has been reported
following a cumulative dose of 150 – 6000 mg fluconazole in the first trimester of
pregnancy [126 ]. The same working group reported an increased risk of miscarriage after oral fluconazole
therapy in early pregnancy [127 ]. Dequalinium chloride can be an alternative treatment option [128 ], [129 ], [130 ].
8.7 Self-medication
Consensus-based recommendation 8.E10
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
Patients must be treated for VVC after a correct and medically confirmed diagnosis
based on patient history, clinical examination, fresh specimens, and culturing, where
required.
More than 80% of cases self-medicate with OTC (over-the-counter) drugs, usually clotrimazole
or fluconazole, to treat VVC [38 ], [131 ]. According to one study, however, only one third of women who self-medicated with
vaginal antifungal agents actually suffered from VVC [132 ]. Patients should therefore only be treated for VVC after receiving a correct, medically
confirmed diagnosis to prevent the development of resistance and side effects.
8.8 Importance of probiotics
Consensus-based statement 8.S8
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
Probiotics appear to have a positive prophylactic effect on the prevention of VVC,
although the evidence for this is limited.
Because of the antagonistic effect of certain Lactobacillus strains against Candida -related vulvovaginitis, probiotics are viewed as a natural approach for the prophylaxis
and treatment of infections. Extragenital locations such as the bowel serve as reservoirs
for recolonization in women with chronic RVVC [133 ], meaning that it could be useful to consider administering oral probiotics to women
with chronic RVVC as well as to women for whom antifungal agents are contraindicated
[134 ], [135 ]. Probiotics may be an effective prophylactic strategy against VVC, for example,
to prevent Candida glabrata vaginitis [136 ]. Probiotics may also be directly effective; as fungicides, they inhibit the growth
of Candida and limit adhesion to epithelial cells [137 ].
8.9 Alternative and complementary medicine
Consensus-based statement 8.S9
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
There are a number of different therapeutic alternatives for the treatment of VVC,
but they are seldom evidence-based.
Boric acid exhibits antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activity as well as having
antiseptic and astringent properties. It is applied in the form of topical powder
and helps to curb the growth of Candida spp. It alleviates itching and inflammation and expedites healing. Its application
should be limited to off-label use in exceptional cases. Povidone-iodine (PVP-I) has
a germicidal effect against bacteria, fungi and viruses, as it inhibits biofilm develop.
The administration of PVP-I therefore usually results in a relatively rapid alleviation
of VVC symptoms [134 ]. Propolis has also been described as a promising alternative for the treatment of
VVC. It has antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, hepatoprotective, antitumoral,
immunomodulatory, wound-healing, anesthetic and antioxidative properties [134 ], [138 ]. Salvina officinalis is another alternative
therapy option [139 ], as is therapy with progestogens [66 ], [140 ].
9 Outlook
9.1 Immunotherapies
Consensus-based statement 9.S10
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
To date, there are no approved immunotherapies against Candida vaginitis.
9.2 Future research
Consensus-based statement 9.S11
Expert consensus
Level of consensus +++
There is a comprehensive need for preclinical, translational and clinical research
into VVC and chronic RVVC.
