S2k-Leitlinie Gastrointestinale Infektionen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Gastroenterologie, Verdauungs- und Stoffwechselkrankheiten (DGVS)

Carolin F. Manthey; Hans-Jörg Epple; Klaus-Michael Keller; Christoph Lübbert; Carsten Posovszky; Michael Ramharter; Philipp Reuken; Sebastian Suerbaum; Maria Vehreschild; Thomas Weinke; Marylyn M. Addo; Andreas Stallmach; Ansgar W. Lohse; Collaborators

doi:10.1055/a-2240-1428

Zeitschrift für Gastroenterologie, Inhaltsverzeichnis

Z Gastroenterol 2024; 62(07): 1090-1149
DOI: 10.1055/a-2240-1428

Leitlinie

S2k-Leitlinie Gastrointestinale Infektionen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Gastroenterologie, Verdauungs- und Stoffwechselkrankheiten (DGVS)

Version 2.0 – November 2023 – AWMF-Registernummer: 021–024

Carolin F. Manthey

¹I. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik – Schwerpunkt Gastroenterologie; Sektionen Infektions- und Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Deutschland

²Gemeinschaftspraxis Innere Medizin Witten, Witten, Deutschland

,

Hans-Jörg Epple

³Antibiotic Stewardship, Vorstand Krankenversorgung, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Deutschland

,

Klaus-Michael Keller

⁴Klinik für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin, Helios Dr. Horst Schmidt Kliniken, Klinik für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin, Wiesbaden, Deutschland

,

Christoph Lübbert

⁵Bereich Infektiologie und Tropenmedizin, Medizinische Klinik I (Hämatologie, Zelltherapie, Infektiologie und Hämostaseologie), Universitätsklinikum Leipzig, Leipzig, Deutschland

,

Carsten Posovszky

⁶Universitäts-Kinderspital Zürich, Zürich, Schweiz

,

Michael Ramharter

¹I. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik – Schwerpunkt Gastroenterologie; Sektionen Infektions- und Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Deutschland

,

Philipp Reuken

⁷Klinik für Innere Medizin IV (Gastroenterologie, Hepatologie, Infektiologie, Zentrale Endoskopie), Universitätsklinikum Jena, Jena, Deutschland

,

Sebastian Suerbaum

⁸Universität München, Max von Pettenkofer-Institut für Hygiene und Medizinische Mikrobiologie, München, Deutschland

,

Maria Vehreschild

⁹Medizinische Klinik II, Universitätsklinikum Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Deutschland

,

Thomas Weinke

¹⁰Klinik für Gastroenterologie und Infektiologie, Klinikum Ernst von Bergmann, Potsdam, Deutschland

,

Marylyn M. Addo

¹I. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik – Schwerpunkt Gastroenterologie; Sektionen Infektions- und Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Deutschland

¹¹Institut für Infektionsforschung und Impfstoffentwicklung Sektion Infektiologie, I. Med. Klinik, Zentrum für Innere Medizin, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Deutschland

,

Andreas Stallmach

⁷Klinik für Innere Medizin IV (Gastroenterologie, Hepatologie, Infektiologie, Zentrale Endoskopie), Universitätsklinikum Jena, Jena, Deutschland

,

Ansgar W. Lohse

¹I. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik – Schwerpunkt Gastroenterologie; Sektionen Infektions- und Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Deutschland

,

Collaborators

› Institutsangaben

Abstract

Schlüsselwörter

Gastroenteritis - GI-Infektion - Diarrhoe - Campylobacter - Salmonellen - Clostridioides difficile - Flüssigkeitssubstitution - Azithromycin - Fidaxomicin - Reiserückkehrer

Volltext

Referenzen

Literatur
1 Robert Koch Institut (RKI). Infektionsepidemiologisches Jahrbuch für 2020. 2021
2 Lammert F, Lynen Jansen P, Lerch MM. Weissbuch Gastroenterologie 2020/2021: De Gruyter. 2019
3 Wilking H, Spitznagel H, Werber D. et al. Acute gastrointestinal illness in adults in Germany: a population-based telephone survey. Epidemiol Infect 2013; 141: 2365-2375
4 Nisavanh A, Horrigue I, Debin M. et al. Epidemiology of acute gastroenteritis in France from November 2019-August 2021, in light of reported adherence to COVID-19 barrier measures. Sci Rep 2022; 12: 17504
5 Lübbert C. Gastrointestinale Infektionen: Steigende Hospitalisierungs- und Mortalitätsraten. Deutsches Aerzteblatt 2019;
6 Lynen Jansen P, Stallmach A, Lohse AW. et al. [Development of gastrointestinal infectious diseases between 2000 and 2012]. Z Gastroenterol 2014; 52: 549-557
7 O’Reilly KM, Sandman F, Allen D. et al. Predicted norovirus resurgence in 2021–2022 due to the relaxation of nonpharmaceutical interventions associated with COVID-19 restrictions in England: a mathematical modeling study. BMC Med 2021; 19: 299
8 Posovszky C, Backendorf V, Buderus S. et al. S2k-Leitlinie „Akute infektiose Gastroenteritis im Sauglings-, Kindes- und Jugendalter“. Z Gastroenterol 2019; 57: 1077-1118
9 Riddle MS, DuPont HL, Connor BA. ACG Clinical Guideline: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention of Acute Diarrheal Infections in Adults. Am J Gastroenterol 2016; 111: 602-622
10 Shane AL, Mody RK, Crump JA. et al. 2017 Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Infectious Diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 2017; 65: 1963-1973
11 Hasenfuß G, Märker-Hermann E, Hallek M. et al. Klug entscheiden – evidenzbasiert. Der Internist 2017; 58: 525-526
12 Koplan JP, Fineberg HV, Ferraro MJ. et al. Value of stool cultures. Lancet 1980; 2: 413-416
13 Riaz MM, Patel MJ, Khan MS. et al. Clinical characteristics and predictors of positive stool culture in adult patients with acute gastroenteritis. J Pak Med Assoc 2012; 62: 20-24
14 Robert-Koch-Institut. Infektionsepidemiologisches Jahrbuch meldepflichtiger Krankheiten für 2019. In: Robert-Koch-Institut, ed. Volume 2021. 2019. https://www.rki.de/DE/Content/Infekt/Jahrbuch/Jahrbuch_2019.pdf?__blob=publicationFile
15 Epple H. Inefktiöse Gastroenteritis. In: J.F. Riemann WF, P.R. Galle, J. Mössner, ed. Referenz Gastroenterologie 1. Auflage. Volume 1. Stuttgart, New York: Thieme; 2019: 423-430
16 Caspary WF, Lüpke NP, Oldiges FJ. et al. Diarrhoe in der ärztlichen Praxis. Eine Bestandsaufnahme. Med. Wochenschr 1995; 137: 411-415
17 Robert-Koch-Institut. Meldepflichtige Krankheiten und Krankheitserreger. 2020 Volume 2021.
18 Onwuezobe IA, Oshun PO, Odigwe CC. Antimicrobials for treating symptomatic non-typhoidal Salmonella infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 11: CD001167
19 Ternhag A, Asikainen T, Giesecke J. et al. A meta-analysis on the effects of antibiotic treatment on duration of symptoms caused by infection with Campylobacter species. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44: 696-700
20 Dryden MS, Gabb RJ, Wright SK. Empirical treatment of severe acute community-acquired gastroenteritis with ciprofloxacin. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22: 1019-1025
21 Jansen A, Stark K, Kunkel J. et al. Aetiology of community-acquired, acute gastroenteritis in hospitalised adults: a prospective cohort study. BMC Infect Dis 2008; 8: 143
22 Robert-Koch-Institut. RKI-Ratgeber: Norovirus-Gastroenteritis. 2008 Volume 2021.
23 McAuliffe GN, Anderson TP, Stevens M. et al. Systematic application of multiplex PCR enhances the detection of bacteria, parasites, and viruses in stool samples. J Infect 2013; 67: 122-129
24 Richards AF, Lopman B, Gunn A. et al. Evaluation of a commercial ELISA for detecting Norwalk-like virus antigen in faeces. J Clin Virol 2003; 26: 109-115
25 Lennon G, Reidy N, Collins PJ. et al. A comparison of the efficiency of ELISA and selected primer sets to detect Norovirus isolates in southern Ireland over a four-year period (2002–2006): variation in detection rates and evidence for continuing predominance of NoV GII.4 genotype. Arch Virol 2014; 159: 1697-1705
26 Wiechers C, Bissinger AL, Hamprecht K. et al. Apparently non-specific results found using a norovirus antigen immunoassay for fecal specimens from neonates. J Perinatol 2008; 28: 79-81
27 Robert-Koch-Institut. RKI-Ratgeber: Campylobacter-Enteritis. 2018 Volume 2021.
28 Werber D, Hille K, Frank C. et al. Years of potential life lost for six major enteric pathogens, Germany, 2004–2008. Epidemiol Infect 2013; 141: 961-968
29 Robert-Koch-Institut. RKI-Ratgeber: Salmonellose. 2016 Volume 2021.
30 Fathima P, Jones MA, Moore HC. et al. Impact of rotavirus vaccines on gastroenteritis hospitalisations in Western Australia: a time-series analysis. J Epidemiol 2020;
31 Pörtner K, Fruth A, Flieger A. et al. Überarbeitung der RKI Empfehlungen für die Wiederzulassung zu Gemeinschaftseinrichtungen gemäß § 34 IfSG nach EHECInfektion. Epid Bulletin 2019; 47: 506-509
32 Bielaszewska M, Mellmann A, Zhang W. et al. Characterisation of the Escherichia coli strain associated with an outbreak of haemolytic uraemic syndrome in Germany, 2011: a microbiological study. Lancet Infect Dis 2011; 11: 671-676
33 Frank C, Werber D, Cramer JP. et al. Epidemic profile of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak in Germany. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 1771-1780
34 Kist M, Mauch H, Podbielski A. et al. Mikrobiologisch-infektiologische Qualitätsstandards (MiQ), MIQ 09: Gastrointestinale Infektionen. München: Elsevier, Urban & Fischer; 2013
35 Robert-Koch-Institut. RKI-Ratgeber: EHEC-Erkrankung. 2011 Volume 2021.
36 Robert-Koch-Institut. RKI-Ratgeber: Shigellose. 2012 Volume 2021.
37 Robert-Koch-Institut. RKI-Ratgeber: Listeriose. 2010 Volume 2021.
38 Robert-Koch-Institut. RKI-Ratgeber: Yersiniose. 2019 Volume 2012.
39 Weinberg ED. Iron loading and disease surveillance. Emerg Infect Dis 1999; 5: 346-352
40 Thwaites PA, Woods ML. Sepsis and siderosis, Yersinia enterocolitica and hereditary haemochromatosis. BMJ Case Rep 2017;
41 Cheung KS, Hung IFN, Chan PPY. et al. Gastrointestinal Manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Virus Load in Fecal Samples From a Hong Kong Cohort: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 2020; 159: 81-95
42 D’Amico F, Baumgart DC, Danese S. et al. Diarrhea During COVID-19 Infection: Pathogenesis, Epidemiology, Prevention, and Management. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020; 18: 1663-1672
43 Li LQ, Huang T, Wang YQ. et al. COVID-19 patients’ clinical characteristics, discharge rate, and fatality rate of meta-analysis. J Med Virol 2020; 92: 577-583
44 An P, Chen H, Ren H. et al. Gastrointestinal Symptoms Onset in COVID-19 Patients in Wuhan, China. Dig Dis Sci 2021; 66: 3578-3587
45 Wolfel R, Corman VM, Guggemos W. et al. Virological assessment of hospitalized patients with COVID-2019. Nature 2020; 581: 465-469
46 McDonald LC, Gerding DN, Johnson S. et al. Clinical Practice Guidelines for Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults and Children: 2017 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA). Clin Infect Dis 2018; 66: 987-994
47 Raveh D, Rabinowitz B, Breuer GS. et al. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile toxin-positive nosocomial diarrhoea. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2006; 28: 231-237
48 Singh H, Nugent Z, Yu BN. et al. Higher Incidence of Clostridium difficile Infection Among Individuals With Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Gastroenterology 2017; 153: 430-438.e2
49 Brown KA, Khanafer N, Daneman N. et al. Meta-analysis of antibiotics and the risk of community-associated Clostridium difficile infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57: 2326-2332
50 Deshpande A, Pasupuleti V, Thota P. et al. Community-associated Clostridium difficile infection and antibiotics: a meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68: 1951-1961
51 Pakyz AL, Jawahar R, Wang Q. et al. Medication risk factors associated with healthcare-associated Clostridium difficile infection: a multilevel model case-control study among 64 US academic medical centres. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2014; 69: 1127-1131
52 Garey KW, Sethi S, Yadav Y. et al. Meta-analysis to assess risk factors for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect 2008; 70: 298-304
53 Janarthanan S, Ditah I, Adler DG. et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and proton pump inhibitor therapy: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2012; 107: 1001-1010
54 Kwok CS, Arthur AK, Anibueze CI. et al. Risk of Clostridium difficile infection with acid suppressing drugs and antibiotics: meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2012; 107: 1011-1019
55 Novack L, Kogan S, Gimpelevich L. et al. Acid suppression therapy does not predispose to Clostridium difficile infection: the case of the potential bias. PLoS One 2014; 9: e110790
56 Weiss K, Louie T, Miller MA. et al. Effects of proton pump inhibitors and histamine-2 receptor antagonists on response to fidaxomicin or vancomycin in patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. BMJ Open Gastroenterol 2015; 2: e000028
57 Gateau C, Couturier J, Coia J. et al. How to: diagnose infection caused by Clostridium difficile. Clin Microbiol Infect 2018; 24: 463-468
58 Crobach MJ, Planche T, Eckert C. et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the diagnostic guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect 2016; 22 (Suppl. 04) S63-S81
59 Couturier J, Davies K, Gateau C. et al. Ribotypes and New Virulent Strains Across Europe. Adv Exp Med Biol 2018; 1050: 45-58
60 Pavlidis P, Chedgy FJ, Tibble JA. Diagnostic accuracy and clinical application of faecal calprotectin in adult patients presenting with gastrointestinal symptoms in primary care. Scand J Gastroenterol 2013; 48: 1048-1054
61 Shah RJ, Fenoglio-Preiser C, Bleau BL. et al. Usefulness of colonoscopy with biopsy in the evaluation of patients with chronic diarrhea. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 1091-1095
62 Berdichevski T, Keller N, Rahav G. et al. The impact of pseudomembrane formation on the outcome of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Infection 2013; 41: 969-977
63 Ben-Horin S, Margalit M, Bossuyt P. et al. Prevalence and clinical impact of endoscopic pseudomembranes in patients with inflammatory bowel disease and Clostridium difficile infection. J Crohns Colitis 2010; 4: 194-198
64 Nomura K, Fujimoto Y, Yamashita M. et al. Absence of pseudomembranes in Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in patients using immunosuppression agents. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 2009; 44: 74-78
65 Wahnschaffe U, Ignatius R, Loddenkemper C. et al. Diagnostic value of endoscopy for the diagnosis of giardiasis and other intestinal diseases in patients with persistent diarrhea from tropical or subtropical areas. Scand J Gastroenterol 2007; 42: 391-396
66 Berenger BM, Ferrato C, Chui L. Viability of bacterial enteropathogens in fecal samples in the presence or absence of different types of transport media. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2019; 95: 114862
67 Wasfy M, Oyofo B, Elgindy A. et al. Comparison of preservation media for storage of stool samples. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33: 2176-2178
68 Taylor WI, Schelhart D. Effect of temperature of incubation on performance of media in the detection of enteric pathogens. Appl Microbiol 1973; 25: 940-944
69 Valenstein P, Pfaller M, Yungbluth M. The use and abuse of routine stool microbiology: a College of American Pathologists Q-probes study of 601 institutions. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1996; 120: 206-211
70 Khanna S, Pardi DS, Rosenblatt JE. et al. An evaluation of repeat stool testing for Clostridium difficile infection by polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Gastroenterol 2012; 46: 846-849
71 Deshpande A, Pasupuleti V, Patel P. et al. Repeat stool testing for Clostridium difficile using enzyme immunoassay in patients with inflammatory bowel disease increases diagnostic yield. Curr Med Res Opin 2012; 28: 1553-1560
72 Hiatt RA, Markell EK, Ng E. How many stool examinations are necessary to detect pathogenic intestinal protozoa?. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1995; 53: 36-39
73 Muche M, Siegmund B, Epple H. Molekulare Diagnostik der infektiösen Gastroenteritis. Der Gastroenterologe 2020; 15: 153-158
74 Freeman K, Mistry H, Tsertsvadze A. et al. Multiplex tests to identify gastrointestinal bacteria, viruses and parasites in people with suspected infectious gastroenteritis: a systematic review and economic analysis. Health Technol Assess 2017; 21: 1-188
75 Spina A, Kerr KG, Cormican M. et al. Spectrum of enteropathogens detected by the FilmArray GI Panel in a multicentre study of community-acquired gastroenteritis. Clin Microbiol Infect 2015; 21: 719-728
76 Liu J, Kabir F, Manneh J. et al. Development and assessment of molecular diagnostic tests for 15 enteropathogens causing childhood diarrhoea: a multicentre study. Lancet Infect Dis 2014; 14: 716-724
77 Enserink R, Scholts R, Bruijning-Verhagen P. et al. High detection rates of enteropathogens in asymptomatic children attending day care. PLoS One 2014; 9: e89496
78 Axelrad JE, Freedberg DE, Whittier S. et al. Impact of Gastrointestinal Panel Implementation on Health Care Utilization and Outcomes. J Clin Microbiol 2019; 57
79 Hitchcock MM, Gomez CA, Banaei N. Low Yield of FilmArray GI Panel in Hospitalized Patients with Diarrhea: an Opportunity for Diagnostic Stewardship Intervention. J Clin Microbiol 2018; 56
80 McFarland LV, Mulligan ME, Kwok RY. et al. Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 204-210
81 Pörtner KFA, Flieger A, Middendorf-Bauchart B. et al. Aktualisierung der RKI-Empfehlungen für die Wiederzulassung zu Gemeinschaftseinrichtungen gemäß § 34 IfSG. Epidemiol Bulletin 2019; 47: 506-509
82 Momcilovic S, Cantacessi C, Arsic-Arsenijevic V. et al. Rapid diagnosis of parasitic diseases: current scenario and future needs. Clin Microbiol Infect 2019; 25: 290-309
83 Robert-Koch-Institut. RKI-Ratgeber: Kryptosporidiose. 2019 Volume 2021.
84 Bresee JS, Marcus R, Venezia RA. et al. The etiology of severe acute gastroenteritis among adults visiting emergency departments in the United States. J Infect Dis 2012; 205: 1374-1381
85 Avery ME, Snyder JD. Oral therapy for acute diarrhea. The underused simple solution. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 891-894
86 Carpenter CC, Greenough WB, Pierce NF. Oral-rehydration therapy--the role of polymeric substrates. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 1346-1348
87 Posovszky C, Buderus S, Classen M. et al. Acute Infectious Gastroenteritis in Infancy and Childhood. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2020; 117: 615-624
88 Rao SS, Summers RW, Rao GR. et al. Oral rehydration for viral gastroenteritis in adults: a randomized, controlled trial of 3 solutions. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2006; 30: 433-439
89 DGfPI D. DGPI Handbuch – Infektionen bei Kindern und Jugendlichen. 6. Auflage. New York: Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart; 2013
90 Scallan Walter EJ, Crim SM, Bruce BB. et al. Postinfectious Irritable Bowel Syndrome After Campylobacter Infection. Am J Gastroenterol 2019; 114: 1649-1656
91 DuPont HL. Guidelines on acute infectious diarrhea in adults. The Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of Gastroenterology. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 1962-1975
92 Guarino A, Ashkenazi S, Gendrel D. et al. European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition/European Society for Pediatric Infectious Diseases evidence-based guidelines for the management of acute gastroenteritis in children in Europe: update 2014. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2014; 59: 132-152
93 MacGillivray S, Fahey T, McGuire W. Lactose avoidance for young children with acute diarrhoea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 2013: CD005433
94 King CK, Glass R, Bresee JS. et al. Managing acute gastroenteritis among children: oral rehydration, maintenance, and nutritional therapy. MMWR Recomm Rep 2003; 52: 1-16
95 Nager AL, Wang VJ. Comparison of nasogastric and intravenous methods of rehydration in pediatric patients with acute dehydration. Pediatrics 2002; 109: 566-572
96 Fonseca BK, Holdgate A, Craig JC. Enteral vs intravenous rehydration therapy for children with gastroenteritis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2004; 158: 483-490
97 Hartling L, Bellemare S, Wiebe N. et al. Oral versus intravenous rehydration for treating dehydration due to gastroenteritis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; 2006: CD004390
98 Guarino A, Albano F, Ashkenazi S. et al. European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition/European Society for Paediatric Infectious Diseases Evidence-based Guidelines for the Management of Acute Gastroenteritis in Children in Europe. JPGN 2008; 46: S81-S122
99 Sato A, Nakamura I, Fujita H. et al. Peripheral venous catheter-related bloodstream infection is associated with severe complications and potential death: a retrospective observational study. BMC Infect Dis 2017; 17: 434
100 Spandorfer PR, Alessandrini EA, Joffe MD. et al. Oral versus intravenous rehydration of moderately dehydrated children: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 2005; 115: 295-301
101 Volkert D, Beck AM, Cederholm T. et al. ESPEN guideline on clinical nutrition and hydration in geriatrics. Clin Nutr 2019; 38: 10-47
102 Hayajneh WA, Jdaitawi H, Al Shurman A. et al. Comparison of clinical associations and laboratory abnormalities in children with moderate and severe dehydration. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2010; 50: 290-294
103 Passariello A, Agricole P, Malfertheiner P. A critical appraisal of probiotics (as drugs or food supplements) in gastrointestinal diseases. Current Medical Research and Opinion 2014; 30: 1055-1064
104 Freedman SB, Williamson-Urquhart S, Farion KJ. et al. Multicenter Trial of a Combination Probiotic for Children with Gastroenteritis. N Engl J Med 2018; 379: 2015-2026
105 Schnadower D, Tarr PI, Casper TC. et al. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG versus Placebo for Acute Gastroenteritis in Children. N Engl J Med 2018; 379: 2002-2014
106 Collinson S, Deans A, Padua-Zamora A. et al. Probiotics for treating acute infectious diarrhoea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2020; 12: CD003048
107 Allen SJ, Martinez EG, Gregorio GV. et al. Probiotics for treating acute infectious diarrhoea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; 2010: CD003048
108 Szajewska H, Guarino A, Hojsak I. et al. Use of Probiotics for the Management of Acute Gastroenteritis in Children: An Update. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2020; 71: 261-269
109 Preidis GA, Weizman AV, Kashyap PC. et al. AGA Technical Review on the Role of Probiotics in the Management of Gastrointestinal Disorders. Gastroenterology 2020; 159: 708-738.e4
110 Fedorowicz Z, Jagannath VA, Carter B. Antiemetics for reducing vomiting related to acute gastroenteritis in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 2011: CD005506
111 Florez ID, Nino-Serna LF, Beltran-Arroyave CP. Acute Infectious Diarrhea and Gastroenteritis in Children. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2020; 22: 4
112 Das JK, Kumar R, Salam RA. et al. The effect of antiemetics in childhood gastroenteritis. BMC Public Health 2013; 13 (Suppl. 03) S9
113 Lo Vecchio A, Vandenplas Y, Benninga M. et al. An international consensus report on a new algorithm for the management of infant diarrhoea. Acta Paediatr 2016; 105: e384-e389
114 Dalby-Payne JR, Elliott EJ. Gastroenteritis in children. BMJ Clin Evid 2011; 2011: 0314
115 BfArM. Information Letter on Zofran® (ondansetron) and generic medicinal products: Risk of QTc prolongation. 2018 https://www.bfarm.de/SharedDocs/Risikoinformationen/Pharmakovigilanz/EN/RHB/2013/info-zofran.html)
116 MedWatch. The FDA Safety Information and Adverse Event Reporting Program. Zofran (ondansetron): Drug Safety Communication—Risk of Abnormal Heart Rhythms. 2011
117 Uhlig U, Pfeil N, Gelbrich G. et al. Dimenhydrinate in children with infectious gastroenteritis: a prospective, RCT. Pediatrics 2009; 124: e622-e632
118 Schiller LR, Santa Ana CA, Morawski SG. et al. Mechanism of the antidiarrheal effect of loperamide. Gastroenterology 1984; 86: 1475-1480
119 Stoll R, Ruppin H, Domschke W. Calmodulin-mediated effects of loperamide on chloride transport by brush border membrane vesicles from human ileum. Gastroenterology 1988; 95: 69-76
120 Murphy GS, Bodhidatta L, Echeverria P. et al. Ciprofloxacin and loperamide in the treatment of bacillary dysentery. Annals of Internal Medicine 1993; 118: 582-586
121 Sanders JW, Frenck RW, Putnam SD. et al. Azithromycin and loperamide are comparable to levofloxacin and loperamide for the treatment of traveler’s diarrhea in United States military personnel in Turkey. Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2007; 45: 294-301
122 Bergstrom T, Alestig K, Thoren K. et al. Symptomatic treatment of acute infectious diarrhoea: loperamide versus placebo in a double-blind trial. J Infect 1986; 12: 35-38
123 Ericsson CD, DuPont HL, Okhuysen PC. et al. Loperamide plus azithromycin more effectively treats travelers’ diarrhea in Mexico than azithromycin alone. J Travel Med 2007; 14: 312-319
124 Eronen M, Putkonen H, Hallikainen T. et al. Lethal gastroenteritis associated with clozapine and loperamide. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160: 2242-2243
125 Kato H, Kato H, Nakamura M. et al. A case of toxic megacolon secondary to Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea worsened after administration of an antimotility agent and molecular analysis of recovered isolates. J Gastroenterol 2007; 42: 507-508
126 McGregor A, Brown M, Thway K. et al. Fulminant amoebic colitis following loperamide use. J Travel Med 2007; 14: 61-62
127 Schneider A, Runzi M, Peitgen K. et al. Campylobacter jejuni-induced severe colitis--a rare cause of toxic megacolon. Z Gastroenterol 2000; 38: 307-309
128 Lo Vecchio A, Dias JA, Berkley JA. et al. Comparison of Recommendations in Clinical Practice Guidelines for Acute Gastroenteritis in Children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2016; 63: 226-235
129 Li ST, Grossman DC, Cummings P. Loperamide therapy for acute diarrhea in children: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 2007; 4: e98
130 Wang HH, Shieh MJ, Liao KF. A blind, randomized comparison of racecadotril and loperamide for stopping acute diarrhea in adults. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11: 1540-1543
131 Etienney I, Beaugerie L, Viboud C. et al. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as a risk factor for acute diarrhoea: a case crossover study. Gut 2003; 52: 260-263
132 Goodman LJ, Trenholme GM, Kaplan RL. et al. Empiric antimicrobial therapy of domestically acquired acute diarrhea in urban adults. Archives of Internal Medicine 1990; 150: 541-546
133 Dryden MS, Gabb RJ, Wright SK. Empirical treatment of severe acute community-acquired gastroenteritis with ciprofloxacin. Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 1996; 22: 1019-1025
134 Pichler H, Diridl G, Wolf D. Ciprofloxacin in the treatment of acute bacterial diarrhea: a double blind study. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology 1986; 5: 241-243
135 Pichler HE, Diridl G, Stickler K. et al. Clinical efficacy of ciprofloxacin compared with placebo in bacterial diarrhea. The American Journal of Medicine 1987; 82: 329-332
136 Adachi JA, Ericsson CD, Jiang ZD. et al. Azithromycin found to be comparable to levofloxacin for the treatment of US travelers with acute diarrhea acquired in Mexico. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37: 1165-1171
137 Sanders JW, Frenck RW, Putnam SD. et al. Azithromycin and loperamide are comparable to levofloxacin and loperamide for the treatment of traveler’s diarrhea in United States military personnel in Turkey. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 294-301
138 Tribble DR, Sanders JW, Pang LW. et al. Traveler’s diarrhea in Thailand: randomized, double-blind trial comparing single-dose and 3-day azithromycin-based regimens with a 3-day levofloxacin regimen. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44: 338-346
139 Kuschner RA, Trofa AF, Thomas RJ. et al. Use of azithromycin for the treatment of Campylobacter enteritis in travelers to Thailand, an area where ciprofloxacin resistance is prevalent. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21: 536-541
140 BfArM. Systemisch und inhalativ angewendete Chinolon- und Fluorchinolon-Antibiotika: Risiko von die Lebensqualität beeinträchtigenden, lang anhaltenden und möglicherweise irreversiblen Nebenwirkungen – Anwendungsbeschränkungen. 2019
141 Robert K-I. Campylobacter: Ratgeber für Ärzte.
142 Kapperud G, Lassen J, Ostroff SM. et al. Clinical features of sporadic Campylobacter infections in Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 1992; 24: 741-749
143 Molina J, Casin I, Hausfater P. et al. Campylobacter infections in HIV-infected patients: clinical and bacteriological features. AIDS (London, England) 1995; 9: 881-885
144 Louwen R, van Baarlen P, van Vliet AH. et al. Campylobacter bacteremia: a rare and under-reported event?. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp) 2012; 2: 76-87
145 Nyati KK, Nyati R. Role of Campylobacter jejuni infection in the pathogenesis of Guillain-Barre syndrome: an update. Biomed Res Int 2013; 2013: 852195
146 Esan OB, Perera R, McCarthy N. et al. Incidence, risk factors, and health service burden of sequelae of campylobacter and non-typhoidal salmonella infections in England, 2000-2015: A retrospective cohort study using linked electronic health records. J Infect 2020; 81: 221-230
147 Vukelic D, Trkulja V, Salkovic-Petrisic M. Single oral dose of azithromycin versus 5 days of oral erythromycin or no antibiotic in treatment of campylobacter enterocolitis in children: a prospective randomized assessor-blind study. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 2010; 50: 404-410
148 Giacomelli M, Salata C, Martini M. et al. Antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from poultry in Italy. Microb Drug Resist 2014; 20: 181-188
149 Robert-Koch-Institut. Infektionsepidemiologisches Jahrbuch meldepflichtiger Krankheiten für 2019. Berlin. 2020
150 Robert K-I. Salmonellose (Salmonellen-Gastroenteritis): RKI-Ratgeber für Ärzte.
151 Olsen SJ, DeBess EE, McGivern TE. et al. A nosocomial outbreak of fluoroquinolone-resistant salmonella infection. The New England Journal of Medicine 2001; 344: 1572-1579
152 Buchwald DS, Blaser MJ. A review of human salmonellosis: II. Duration of excretion following infection with nontyphi Salmonella. Rev Infect Dis 1984; 6: 345-356
153 Helms M, Simonsen J, Molbak K. Quinolone resistance is associated with increased risk of invasive illness or death during infection with Salmonella serotype Typhimurium. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 2004; 190: 1652-1654
154 Saphra I, Winter JW. Clinical manifestations of salmonellosis in man; an evaluation of 7779 human infections identified at the New York Salmonella Center. The New England Journal of Medicine 1957; 256: 1128-1134
155 Onwuezobe IA, Oshun PO, Odigwe CC. Antimicrobials for treating symptomatic non-typhoidal Salmonella infection. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012; 11: CD001167
156 Cohen PS, O’Brien TF, Schoenbaum SC. et al. The risk of endothelial infection in adults with salmonella bacteremia. Annals of Internal Medicine 1978; 89: 931-932
157 Hsu RB, Lin FY. Risk factors for bacteraemia and endovascular infection due to non-typhoid salmonella: a reappraisal. QJM 2005; 98: 821-827
158 Day LJ, Qayyum QJ, Kauffman CA. Salmonella prosthetic joint septic arthritis. Clinical Microbiology and Infection: The Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 2002; 8: 427-430
159 Chambers JB, Forsythe DA, Bertrand SL. et al. Retrospective review of osteoarticular infections in a pediatric sickle cell age group. J Pediatr Orthop 2000; 20: 682-685
160 Crump JA, Sjolund-Karlsson M, Gordon MA. et al. Epidemiology, Clinical Presentation, Laboratory Diagnosis, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Antimicrobial Management of Invasive Salmonella Infections. Clin Microbiol Rev 2015; 28: 901-937
161 Hohmann EL. Nontyphoidal salmonellosis. Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2001; 32: 263-269
162 Gal-Mor O. Persistent Infection and Long-Term Carriage of Typhoidal and Nontyphoidal Salmonellae. Clin Microbiol Rev 2019; 32
163 Marzel A, Desai PT, Goren A. et al. Persistent Infections by Nontyphoidal Salmonella in Humans: Epidemiology and Genetics. Clin Infect Dis 2016; 62: 879-886
164 Gotuzzo E, Guerra JG, Benavente L. et al. Use of norfloxacin to treat chronic typhoid carriers. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 1988; 157: 1221-1225
165 Zavala Trujillo I, Quiroz C, Gutierrez MA. et al. Fluoroquinolones in the treatment of typhoid fever and the carrier state. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases: Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology 1991; 10: 334-341
166 Gunn JS, Marshall JM, Baker S. et al. Salmonella chronic carriage: epidemiology, diagnosis, and gallbladder persistence. Trends Microbiol 2014; 22: 648-655
167 Robert K-I. Erkrankungen durch Enterohämorrhagische Escherichia coli (EHEC): Ratgeber für Ärzte.
168 Smith KE, Wilker PR, Reiter PL. et al. Antibiotic treatment of Escherichia coli O157 infection and the risk of hemolytic uremic syndrome, Minnesota. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2012; 31: 37-41
169 Wong CS, Mooney JC, Brandt JR. et al. Risk factors for the hemolytic uremic syndrome in children infected with Escherichia coli O157:H7: a multivariable analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: 33-41
170 Menne J, Nitschke M, Stingele R. et al. Validation of treatment strategies for enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O104:H4 induced haemolytic uraemic syndrome: case-control study. BMJ 2012; 345: e4565
171 Nitschke M, Sayk F, Hartel C. et al. Association between azithromycin therapy and duration of bacterial shedding among patients with Shiga toxin-producing enteroaggregative Escherichia coli O104:H4. JAMA 2012; 307: 1046-1052
172 Jenssen GR, Veneti L, Lange H. et al. Implementation of multiplex PCR diagnostics for gastrointestinal pathogens linked to increase of notified Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli cases in Norway, 2007-2017. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2019; 38: 801-809
173 Gould LH, Mody RK, Ong KL. et al. Increased recognition of non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infections in the United States during 2000-2010: epidemiologic features and comparison with E. coli O157 infections. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2013; 10: 453-460
174 Allen H, Mitchell HD, Simms I. et al. Evidence for re-infection and persistent carriage of Shigella species in adult males reporting domestically acquired infection in England. Clin Microbiol Infect 2021; 27: 126.e7-126.e13
175 Christopher PR, David KV, John SM. et al. Antibiotic therapy for Shigella dysentery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; 2010: CD006784
176 Nisa I, Qasim M, Yasin N. et al. Shigella flexneri: an emerging pathogen. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2020; 65: 275-291
177 Bardsley M, Jenkins C, Mitchell HD. et al. Persistent Transmission of Shigellosis in England Is Associated with a Recently Emerged Multidrug-Resistant Strain of Shigella sonnei. J Clin Microbiol 2020; 58
178 Brown JD, Willcox SJ, Franklin N. et al. Shigella species epidemiology and antimicrobial susceptibility: the implications of emerging azithromycin resistance for guiding treatment, guidelines and breakpoints. J Antimicrob Chemother 2017; 72: 3181-3186
179 Nuesch-Inderbinen M, Heini N, Zurfluh K. et al. Shigella Antimicrobial Drug Resistance Mechanisms, 2004–2014. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 22: 1083-1085
180 Tickell KD, Brander RL, Atlas HE. et al. Identification and management of Shigella infection in children with diarrhoea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob Health 2017; 5: e1235-e1248
181 Rakin A, Schneider L, Podladchikova O. Hunger for iron: the alternative siderophore iron scavenging systems in highly virulent Yersinia. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2012; 2: 151
182 Reinhardt M, Hammerl JA, Kunz K. et al. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Prevalence and Diversity in Wild Boars in Northeast Germany. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84
183 Rosner BM, Werber D, Hohle M. et al. Clinical aspects and self-reported symptoms of sequelae of Yersinia enterocolitica infections in a population-based study, Germany 2009-2010. BMC Infect Dis 2013; 13: 236
184 Ostroff SM, Kapperud G, Lassen J. et al. Clinical features of sporadic Yersinia enterocolitica infections in Norway. J Infect Dis 1992; 166: 812-817
185 Heine W, Beckstette M, Heroven AK. et al. Loss of CNFY toxin-induced inflammation drives Yersinia pseudotuberculosis into persistency. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14: e1006858
186 Hoogkamp-Korstanje JA, de Koning J, Heesemann J. Persistence of Yersinia enterocolitica in man. Infection 1988; 16: 81-85
187 Bentaleb I, Abdelghani KB, Rostom S. et al. Reactive Arthritis: Update. Curr Clin Microbiol Rep 2020; 7: 124-132
188 Butler T. Haemolytic uraemic syndrome during shigellosis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2012; 106: 395-399
189 Polage CR, Solnick JV, Cohen SH. Nosocomial diarrhea: evaluation and treatment of causes other than Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: 982-989
190 Gorkiewicz G. Nosocomial and antibiotic-associated diarrhoea caused by organisms other than Clostridium difficile. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2009; 33 (Suppl. 01) S37-S41
191 Bauer MP, Notermans DW, van Benthem BH. et al. Clostridium difficile infection in Europe: a hospital-based survey. Lancet 2011; 377: 63-73
192 Lima NL, Guerrant RL, Kaiser DL. et al. A retrospective cohort study of nosocomial diarrhea as a risk factor for nosocomial infection. J Infect Dis 1990; 161: 948-952
193 Magill SS, Edwards JR, Bamberg W. et al. Multistate point-prevalence survey of health care-associated infections. N Engl J Med 2014; 370: 1198-1208
194 Balsells E, Shi T, Leese C. et al. Global burden of Clostridium difficile infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Glob Health 2019; 9: 010407
195 Meyer E, Gastmeier P, Weizel-Kage D. et al. Associations between nosocomial meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea in 89 German hospitals. J Hosp Infect 2012; 82: 181-186
196 Jones AM, Kuijper EJ, Wilcox MH. Clostridium difficile: a European perspective. J Infect 2013; 66: 115-128
197 Hensgens MP, Goorhuis A, Dekkers OM. et al. All-cause and disease-specific mortality in hospitalized patients with Clostridium difficile infection: a multicenter cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56: 1108-1116
198 Vonberg RP, Reichardt C, Behnke M. et al. Costs of nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. J Hosp Infect 2008; 70: 15-20
199 Allen SJ, Wareham K, Wang D. et al. Lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea and Clostridium difficile diarrhoea in older inpatients (PLACIDE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet 2013; 382: 1249-1257
200 Epple HJ, Zeitz M. [Infectious enteritis]. Internist (Berl) 2011; 52: 1038, 1040-1044, 1046
201 Bernard H, Hohne M, Niendorf S. et al. Epidemiology of norovirus gastroenteritis in Germany 2001–2009: eight seasons of routine surveillance. Epidemiol Infect 2014; 142: 63-74
202 Lopman BA, Reacher MH, Vipond IB. et al. Clinical manifestation of norovirus gastroenteritis in health care settings. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 318-324
203 van Prehn J, Reigadas E, Vogelzang EH. et al. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: 2021 update on the treatment guidance document for Clostridioides difficile infection in adults. Clin Microbiol Infect 2021; 27 (Suppl. 02) S1-S21
204 Lynen Jansen P, Preiß JC, Muche-Borowski C. et al. [The guidelines program of the DGVS]. Z Gastroenterol 2013; 51: 643-650
205 van Rossen TM, Ooijevaar RE, Vandenbroucke-Grauls C. et al. Prognostic factors for severe and recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection: a systematic review. Clin Microbiol Infect 2022; 28: 321-331
206 Farthing M, Lindberg G, Dite P. World Gastroenterology Organisation practice guideline: Acute diarrhea.
207 Siegel DL, Edelstein PH, Nachamkin I. Inappropriate testing for diarrheal diseases in the hospital. Jama 1990; 263: 979-982
208 Cohen SH, Gerding DN, Johnson S. et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010; 31: 431-455
209 Debast SB, Bauer MP, Kuijper EJ. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20 (Suppl. 02) 1-26
210 Johnson S, Louie TJ, Gerding DN. et al. Vancomycin, metronidazole, or tolevamer for Clostridium difficile infection: results from two multinational, randomized, controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 59: 345-354
211 Zar FA, Bakkanagari SR, Moorthi KM. et al. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 302-307
212 Musher DM, Aslam S, Logan N. et al. Relatively poor outcome after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis with metronidazole. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 1586-1590
213 Pepin J, Alary ME, Valiquette L. et al. Increasing risk of relapse after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis in Quebec, Canada. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 1591-1597
214 Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM. et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 422-431
215 Cornely OA, Crook DW, Esposito R. et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for infection with Clostridium difficile in Europe, Canada, and the USA: a double-blind, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2012; 12: 281-289
216 Nerandzic MM, Mullane K, Miller MA. et al. Reduced acquisition and overgrowth of vancomycin-resistant enterococci and Candida species in patients treated with fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55 (Suppl. 02) S121-S126
217 Guery B, Menichetti F, Anttila VJ. et al. Extended-pulsed fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection in patients 60 years and older (EXTEND): a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 3b/4 trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2018; 18: 296-307
218 Vojtilová L, Freibergerová M, Juránková J. et al. Epidemiological factors influencing the development of relapsing and severe Clostridium difficile infection. Epidemiol Mikrobiol Imunol 2014; 63: 27-35
219 Slimings C, Riley TV. Antibiotics and hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: update of systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69: 881-891
220 Friedenberg F, Fernandez A, Kaul V. et al. Intravenous metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis. Dis Colon Rectum 2001; 44: 1176-1180
221 Neal MD, Alverdy JC, Hall DE. et al. Diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage: an alternative to total abdominal colectomy for the treatment of severe, complicated Clostridium difficile associated disease. Ann Surg 2011; 254: 423-427 ; discussion 427-429
222 Ferrada P, Callcut R, Zielinski MD. et al. Loop ileostomy versus total colectomy as surgical treatment for Clostridium difficile-associated disease: An Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma multicenter trial. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2017; 83: 36-40
223 Johnson S. Recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a review of risk factors, treatments, and outcomes. J Infect 2009; 58: 403-410
224 Cornely OA, Miller MA, Louie TJ. et al. Treatment of first recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection: fidaxomicin versus vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55 (Suppl. 02) S154-S161
225 van Rossen TM, Ooijevaar RE, Vandenbroucke-Grauls C. et al. GRADING prognostic factors for severe and recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection: expected and unexpected findings. A systematic review: Clinical Microbiology and Infection 2021;
226 Wilcox MH, Gerding DN, Poxton IR. et al. Bezlotoxumab for Prevention of Recurrent Clostridium difficile Infection. N Engl J Med 2017; 376: 305-317
227 Hvas CL, Dahl Jørgensen SM, Jørgensen SP. et al. Fecal Microbiota Transplantation Is Superior to Fidaxomicin for Treatment of Recurrent Clostridium difficile Infection. Gastroenterology 2019; 156: 1324-1332.e3
228 McFarland LV, Elmer GW, Surawicz CM. Breaking the cycle: treatment strategies for 163 cases of recurrent Clostridium difficile disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 1769-1775
229 KRINKO. Personelle und organisatorische Voraussetzungen zur Prävention nosokomialer Infektionen. Bundesgesundheitsblatt – Gesundheitsforschung – Gesundheitsschutz 2023; 66: 332-351
230 Valiquette L, Cossette B, Garant MP. et al. Impact of a reduction in the use of high-risk antibiotics on the course of an epidemic of Clostridium difficile-associated disease caused by the hypervirulent NAP1/027 strain. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45 (Suppl. 02) S112-S121
231 Talpaert MJ, Gopal Rao G, Cooper BS. et al. Impact of guidelines and enhanced antibiotic stewardship on reducing broad-spectrum antibiotic usage and its effect on incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66: 2168-2174
232 de With K, Wechsler-Fordos A. [Antibiotic Stewardship (ABS) im Krankenhaus: Voraussetzungen und Empfehlungen zur Gestaltung von ABS-Programmen]. Z Evid Fortbild Qual Gesundhwes 2015; 109: 515-520
233 Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M. et al. 2007 Guideline for Isolation Precautions: Preventing Transmission of Infectious Agents in Health Care Settings. Am J Infect Control 2007; 35: S65-S164
234 KRINKO. Hygienemaßnahmen bei Clostridioides difficile-Infektion (CDI). Bundesgesundheitsblatt – Gesundheitsforschung – Gesundheitsschutz 2019; 62: 906-923
235 Goldenberg JZ, Yap C, Lytvyn L. et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 12: Cd006095
236 Zacharioudakis IM, Ziakas PD, Mylonakis E. Clostridium difficile infection in the hematopoietic unit: a meta-analysis of published studies. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2014; 20: 1650-1654
237 Babar S, El Kurdi B, El Iskandarani M. et al. Oral vancomycin prophylaxis for the prevention of Clostridium difficile infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2020; 41: 1302-1309
238 Mullane KM, Winston DJ, Nooka A. et al. A Randomized, Placebo-controlled Trial of Fidaxomicin for Prophylaxis of Clostridium difficile-associated Diarrhea in Adults Undergoing Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 68: 196-203
239 Primäre und sekundäre Immundefekte. via medici. Volume 2022: Thieme:Definition.
240 Angarone M, Snydman DR, Practice AICo. Diagnosis and management of diarrhea in solid-organ transplant recipients: Guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transplant 2019; 33: e13550
241 Nazi N, Ladomenou F. Gastrointestinal manifestations of primary immune deficiencies in children. Int Rev Immunol 2018; 37: 111-118
242 Krones E, Hogenauer C. Diarrhea in the immunocompromised patient. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2012; 41: 677-701
243 Santoiemma PP, Ison MG, Angarone MP. Newer approaches in diagnosis of diarrhea in immunocompromised patients. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2019; 32: 461-467
244 Kobrynski LJ, Mayer L. Diagnosis and treatment of primary immunodeficiency disease in patients with gastrointestinal symptoms. Clin Immunol 2011; 139: 238-248
245 Arslan H, Inci EK, Azap OK. et al. Etiologic agents of diarrhea in solid organ recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 2007; 9: 270-275
246 Hamamoto Y, Shin N, Hoshino T. et al. Management of challenging immune-related gastrointestinal adverse events associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Future Oncol 2018; 14: 3187-3198
247 Echenique IA, Penugonda S, Stosor V. et al. Diagnostic yields in solid organ transplant recipients admitted with diarrhea. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 60: 729-737
248 Patel NC, Hertel PM, Estes MK. et al. Vaccine-acquired rotavirus in infants with severe combined immunodeficiency. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 314-319
249 Agarwal S, Cunningham-Rundles C. Gastrointestinal Manifestations and Complications of Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2019; 39: 81-94
250 Liesman RM, Binnicker MJ. The role of multiplex molecular panels for the diagnosis of gastrointestinal infections in immunocompromised patients. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2016; 29: 359-365
251 Wilber E, Baker JM, Rebolledo P. Clinical Implications of Multiplex Pathogen Panels for the Diagnosis of Acute Viral Gastroenteritis. J Clin Microbiol 2021;
252 Binnicker MJ. Multiplex Molecular Panels for Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal Infection: Performance, Result Interpretation, and Cost-Effectiveness. J Clin Microbiol 2015; 53: 3723-3728
253 Coste JF, Vuiblet V, Moustapha B. et al. Microbiological diagnosis of severe diarrhea in kidney transplant recipients by use of multiplex PCR assays. J Clin Microbiol 2013; 51: 1841-1849
254 Sobczyk J, Jain S, Sun X. et al. Comparison of Multiplex Gastrointestinal Pathogen Panel and Conventional Stool Testing for Evaluation of Patients With HIV Infection. Open Forum Infect Dis 2020; 7: ofz547
255 Wei SC, Hung CC, Chen MY. et al. Endoscopy in acquired immunodeficiency syndromepatients with diarrhea and negative stool studies. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 51: 427-432
256 Dikman AE, Schonfeld E, Srisarajivakul NC. et al. Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Associated Diarrhea: Still an Issue in the Era of Antiretroviral Therapy. Dig Dis Sci 2015; 60: 2236-2245
257 Makkar R, Lopez R, Shen B. Clinical utility of retrograde terminal ileum intubation in the evaluation of chronic non-bloody diarrhea. J Dig Dis 2013; 14: 536-542
258 Yelika SB, Tumati A, Denoya P. Intestinal Aspergillosis: Systematic Review on Patterns of Clinical Presentation and Management. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2020;
259 Baroco AL, Oldfield EC. Gastrointestinal cytomegalovirus disease in the immunocompromised patient. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2008; 10: 409-416
260 Ganzenmueller T, Kluba J, Becker JU. et al. Detection of cytomegalovirus (CMV) by real-time PCR in fecal samples for the non-invasive diagnosis of CMV intestinal disease. J Clin Virol 2014; 61: 517-522
261 Kucharzik T, Dignass AU, Atreya R. et al. Aktualisierte S3-Leitlinie Colitis ulcerosa – Living Guideline. Z Gastroenterol 2020; 58: e241-e326
262 Feasey NA, Healey P, Gordon MA. Review article: the aetiology, investigation and management of diarrhoea in the HIV-positive patient. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011; 34: 587-603
263 Wasilczuk K, Korzeniewski K. Immunocompromised travellers. Int Marit Health 2017; 68: 229-237
264 Aung AK, Trubiano JA, Spelman DW. Travel risk assessment, advice and vaccinations in immunocompromised travellers (HIV, solid organ transplant and haematopoeitic stem cell transplant recipients): A review. Travel Med Infect Dis 2015; 13: 31-47
265 Assefa S, Erko B, Medhin G. et al. Intestinal parasitic infections in relation to HIV/AIDS status, diarrhea and CD4 T-cell count. BMC Infect Dis 2009; 9: 155
266 Pavie J, Menotti J, Porcher R. et al. Prevalence of opportunistic intestinal parasitic infections among HIV-infected patients with low CD4 cells counts in France in the combination antiretroviral therapy era. Int J Infect Dis 2012; 16: e677-e679
267 Matthes-Martin S, Feuchtinger T, Shaw PJ. et al. European guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of adenovirus infection in leukemia and stem cell transplantation: summary of ECIL-4 (2011). Transpl Infect Dis 2012; 14: 555-563
268 You DM, Johnson MD. Cytomegalovirus infection and the gastrointestinal tract. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2012; 14: 334-342
269 Woodward J, Gkrania-Klotsas E, Kumararatne D. Chronic norovirus infection and common variable immunodeficiency. Clin Exp Immunol 2017; 188: 363-370
270 Brown LK, Clark I, Brown JR. et al. Norovirus infection in primary immune deficiency. Rev Med Virol 2017; 27: e1926
271 Saif MA, Bonney DK, Bigger B. et al. Chronic norovirus infection in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: a cause of prolonged intestinal failure requiring intensive nutritional support. Pediatr Transplant 2011; 15: 505-509
272 Bok K, Green KY. Norovirus gastroenteritis in immunocompromised patients. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 2126-2132
273 Cello JP, Day LW. Idiopathic AIDS enteropathy and treatment of gastrointestinal opportunistic pathogens. Gastroenterology 2009; 136: 1952-1965
274 Donoghue HD, Holton J. Intestinal tuberculosis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2009; 22: 490-496
275 Guarner J, Brandt ME. Histopathologic diagnosis of fungal infections in the 21st century. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011; 24: 247-280
276 Aapro MS, Bohlius J, Cameron DA. et al. 2010 update of EORTC guidelines for the use of granulocyte-colony stimulating factor to reduce the incidence of chemotherapy-induced febrile neutropenia in adult patients with lymphoproliferative disorders and solid tumours. Eur J Cancer 2011; 47: 8-32
277 Razonable RR, Humar A. Cytomegalovirus in solid organ transplant recipients-Guidelines of the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transplant 2019; 33: e13512
278 Torres-Madriz G, Boucher HW. Immunocompromised hosts: perspectives in the treatment and prophylaxis of cytomegalovirus disease in solid-organ transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 702-711
279 Gugliesi F, Coscia A, Griffante G. et al. Where do we Stand after Decades of Studying Human Cytomegalovirus?. Microorganisms 2020; 8: 685
280 Abbas A, Zimmer AJ, Florescu D. Viral Enteritis in Solid-Organ Transplantation. Viruses 2021; 13: 2019
281 Sandkovsky U, Vargas L, Florescu DF. Adenovirus: current epidemiology and emerging approaches to prevention and treatment. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2014; 16: 416
282 Londeree J, Winterberg PD, Garro R. et al. Brincidofovir for the treatment of human adenovirus infection in pediatric solid organ transplant recipients: A case series. Pediatr Transplant 2020; 24: e13769
283 Houghtelin A, Bollard CM. Virus-Specific T Cells for the Immunocompromised Patient. Front Immunol 2017; 8: 1272
284 Adolescents. PoAGfAa. Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. Volume 2022: Department of Health and Human Services.
285 Schonfeld N, Haas W, Richter E. et al. [Recommendations for diagnosis and treatment of nontuberculous mycobacterioses of the German Central Committee against tuberculosis and the German Respiratory Society]. Pneumologie 2013; 67: 605-633
286 Pennington KM, Vu A, Challener D. et al. Approach to the diagnosis and treatment of non-tuberculous mycobacterial disease. J Clin Tuberc Other Mycobact Dis 2021; 24: 100244
287 Thoden J, Potthoff A, Bogner JR. et al. Therapy and prophylaxis of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients: a guideline by the German and Austrian AIDS societies (DAIG/OAG) (AWMF 055/066). Infection 2013; 41 (Suppl. 02) S91-S115
288 Cozar-Llisto A, Ramos-Martinez A, Cobo J. Clostridium difficile Infection in Special High-Risk Populations. Infect Dis Ther 2016; 5: 253-269
289 Kelly CR, Fischer M, Allegretti JR. et al. ACG Clinical Guidelines: Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Clostridioides difficile Infections. Am J Gastroenterol 2021; 116: 1124-1147
290 Gellad ZF, Alexander BD, Liu JK. et al. Severity of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in solid organ transplant patients. Transpl Infect Dis 2007; 9: 276-280
291 Imlay H, Kaul D, Rao K. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection in HIV-infected patients. SAGE Open Med 2016; 4: 2050312116684295
292 Abubakar I, Aliyu SH, Arumugam C. et al. Prevention and treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; CD004932
293 Checkley W, White Jr. AC, Jaganath D. et al. A review of the global burden, novel diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccine targets for cryptosporidium. Lancet Infect Dis 2015; 15: 85-94
294 Nitazoxanide FDA approval. Volume 2022: U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2002.
295 Sparks H, Nair G, Castellanos-Gonzalez A. et al. Treatment of Cryptosporidium: What We Know, Gaps, and the Way Forward. Curr Trop Med Rep 2015; 2: 181-187
296 HIV. PoGftPaToOIiAaAw. Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV. In: National Institutes of Health CfDCaP, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Disease Society of America, ed. Volume 2022.
297 Sukhrie FHA, Siebenga JJ, Beersma MFC. et al. Chronic Shedders as Reservoir for Nosocomial Transmission of Norovirus. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2010; 48: 4303-4305
298 Davis A, Cortez V, Grodzki M. et al. Infectious Norovirus Is Chronically Shed by Immunocompromised Pediatric Hosts. Viruses 2020; 12
299 Milbrath MO, Spicknall IH, Zelner JL. et al. Heterogeneity in norovirus shedding duration affects community risk. Epidemiol Infect 2013; 141: 1572-1584
300 van Beek J, van der Eijk AA, Fraaij PL. et al. Chronic norovirus infection among solid organ recipients in a tertiary care hospital, the Netherlands, 2006-2014. Clin Microbiol Infect 2017; 23: 265 e9-265 e13
301 Ruscher C. Infektionspravention im Rahmen der Pflege und Behandlung von Patienten mit ubertragbaren Krankheiten. Empfehlung der Kommission fur Krankenhaushygiene und Infektionspravention (KRINKO) beim Robert Koch-Institut. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2015; 58: 1151-1170
302 STIKO. Anforderungen an die Infektionsprävention bei der medizinischen Versorgung von immunsupprimierten Patienten. Empfehlung der Kommission für Krankenhaushygiene und Infektionsprävention (KRINKO) beim Robert Koch-Institut. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2021; 64: 232-264
303 Kumar R, Ison MG. Opportunistic Infections in Transplant Patients. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2019; 33: 1143-1157
304 Fishman JA. Infections in immunocompromised hosts and organ transplant recipients: essentials. Liver Transpl 2011; 17 (Suppl. 03) S34-S37
305 Shad S, Hanif F, Ul Haq M. et al. Frequencies of Common Infectious Organisms Causing Chronic Diarrhea in Renal Transplant Patients. Exp Clin Transplant 2019; 17: 212-215
306 Scaggs Huang FA, Danziger-Isakov L. Infectious disease risks in pediatric renal transplantation. Pediatr Nephrol 2019; 34: 1155-1166
307 Angarone M, Ison MG. Diarrhea in solid organ transplant recipients. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2015; 28: 308-316
308 Chascsa DM, Vargas HE. The gastroenterologist’s guide to management of the post-liver transplant patient. Am J Gastroenterol 2018; 113: 819-828
309 Rahier JF, Magro F, Abreu C. et al. Second European evidence-based consensus on the prevention, diagnosis and management of opportunistic infections in inflammatory bowel disease. J Crohns Colitis 2014; 8: 443-468
310 Schaberg T, Brinkmann F, Feiterna-Sperling C. et al. Tuberkulose im Erwachsenenalter. Eine S2k-Leitlinie zur Diagnostik und Therapie, Chemoprävention und Chemoprophylaxe der Tuberkulose im Erwachsenenalter des Deutschen Zentralkomitees zur Bekämpfung der Tuberkulose e. V. (DZK) und der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Pneumologie und Beatmungsmedizin e. V. (DGP). Pneumologie 2022; 76 (11) 727-819
311 Burchard GD, Hentschke M, Weinke T. et al [Travelers’ diarrhea]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2013; 138: 1673-1683 ; quiz 1684-1686
312 Sasse M, Reinhardt F, Lübbert C. [Traveler’s Diarrhea]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2021; 146: 1258-1264
313 Olson S, Hall A, Riddle MS. et al. Travelers’ diarrhea: update on the incidence, etiology and risk in military and similar populations – 1990–2005 versus 2005-2015, does a decade make a difference?. Trop Dis Travel Med Vaccines 2019; 5: 1
314 Lever RA, Tapper L, Skarbek S. et al. Predictors of aetiology and outcomes of acute gastrointestinal illness in returning travellers: a retrospective cohort analysis. BMC Infect Dis 2021; 21: 599
315 Riddle MS, Connor BA, Beeching NJ. et al. Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of travelers’ diarrhea: a graded expert panel report. J Travel Med 2017; 24: S57-S74
316 Adler AV, Ciccotti HR, Trivitt SJH. et al. What’s new in travellers’ diarrhoea: updates on epidemiology, diagnostics, treatment and long-term consequences. J Travel Med 2022; 29
317 Ashbaugh HR, Early JM, Johnson ME. et al. A prospective observational study describing severity of acquired diarrhea among U.S. military and Western travelers participating in the Global Travelers’ Diarrhea Study. Travel Med Infect Dis 2021; 43: 102139
318 McGregor AC, Whitty CJ, Wright SG. Geographic, symptomatic and laboratory predictors of parasitic and bacterial causes of diarrhoea in travellers. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2012; 106: 549-553
319 Ashbaugh HR, Early JM, Johnson ME. et al. A Multisite Network Assessment of the Epidemiology and Etiology of Acquired Diarrhea among U.S. Military and Western Travelers (Global Travelers’ Diarrhea Study): A Principal Role of Norovirus among Travelers with Gastrointestinal Illness. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 103: 1855-1863
320 Bodhidatta L, Anuras S, Sornsakrin S. et al. Epidemiology and etiology of Traveler’s diarrhea in Bangkok, Thailand, a case-control study. Trop Dis Travel Med Vaccines 2019; 5: 9
321 Neuberger A, Saadi T, Shetern A. et al. Clostridium difficile Infection in travelers--a neglected pathogen?. J Travel Med 2013; 20: 37-43
322 Schwartz KL, Morris SK. Travel and the Spread of Drug-Resistant Bacteria. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2018; 20: 29
323 Kantele A, Mero S, Kirveskari J. et al. Fluoroquinolone antibiotic users select fluoroquinolone-resistant ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-PE) – Data of a prospective traveller study. Travel Med Infect Dis 2017; 16: 23-30
324 Khawaja T, Kirveskari J, Johansson S. et al. Patients hospitalized abroad as importers of multiresistant bacteria-a cross-sectional study. Clin Microbiol Infect 2017; 23: 673.e1-673.e8
325 KRINKO. Hygienemaßnahmen bei Infektionen oder Besiedlung mit multiresistenten gramnegativen Stäbchen. Bundesgesundheitsblatt – Gesundheitsforschung – Gesundheitsschutz 2012; 55: 1311-1354
326 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Tropenmedizin RuGGeVD. Leitlinie: Diagnostik und Therapie der Malaria. AWMF online 2021.
327 Kotloff KL, Riddle MS, Platts-Mills JA. et al. Shigellosis. Lancet 2018; 391: 801-812
328 Williams PCM, Berkley JA. Guidelines for the treatment of dysentery (shigellosis): a systematic review of the evidence. Paediatr Int Child Health 2018; 38: S50-S65
329 Porter CK, Olson S, Hall A. et al. Travelers’ Diarrhea: An Update on the Incidence, Etiology, and Risk in Military Deployments and Similar Travel Populations. Mil Med 2017; 182: 4-10
330 Kantor M, Abrantes A, Estevez A. et al. Entamoeba Histolytica: Updates in Clinical Manifestation, Pathogenesis, and Vaccine Development. Can J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 2018: 4601420
331 Brehm TT, Lütgehetmann M, Tannich E. et al. Risk factors for different intestinal pathogens among patients with traveler’s diarrhea: A retrospective analysis at a German travel clinic (2009-2017). Travel Med Infect Dis 2020; 37: 101706
332 Leung AKC, Leung AAM, Wong AHC. et al. Giardiasis: An Overview. Recent Pat Inflamm Allergy Drug Discov 2019; 13: 134-143
333 Taneja N, Mewara A, Kumar A. et al. Cephalosporin-resistant Shigella flexneri over 9 years (2001–2009) in India. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 1347-1353
334 González-Hein G, Cordero N, García P. et al. [Molecular analysis of fluoroquinolones and macrolides resistance in Campylobacter jejuni isolates from humans, bovine and chicken meat]. Rev Chilena Infectol 2013; 30: 135-139
335 Weinke T, Liebold I. [Intestinal protozoa infections]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2013; 138: 709-711
336 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Tropenmedizin RuGGeV, (DTG). S1-Leitlinie Diagnostik und Therapie der Amöbiasis. AWMF Leitlinienregister.
337 Horton B, Bridle H, Alexander CL. et al. Giardia duodenalis in the UK: current knowledge of risk factors and public health implications. Parasitology 2019; 146: 413-424
338 Peters TE, Kreuels B, Addo MM. et al. Risk factors for and management of metronidazole-refractory giardiasis in international travellers: A retrospective analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis 2021; 43: 102090
339 Falkenhorst G, Enkelmann J, Frank C. et al. Epidemiologisches Bulletin: Robert Koch-Institut. 2020
340 Falkenhorst G, Enkelmann J, Lachmann R. et al. Zur Situation bei wichtigen Infektionskrankheiten – Reiseassoziierte Krankheiten 2019. 2020: 7-20
341 Neumayr A, Schunk M, Theunissen C. et al. Efficacy and Tolerability of Quinacrine Monotherapy and Albendazole Plus Chloroquine Combination Therapy in Nitroimidazole-Refractory Giardiasis: A TropNet Study. Clin Infect Dis 2021; 73: 1517-1523
342 Nash TE, Ohl CA, Thomas E. et al. Treatment of patients with refractory giardiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 22-28
343 Ofei SY, Fuchs 3rd GJ. Principles and Practice of Oral Rehydration. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2019; 21: 67
344 Laaveri T, Sterne J, Rombo L. et al. Systematic review of loperamide: No proof of antibiotics being superior to loperamide in treatment of mild/moderate travellers’ diarrhoea. Travel Med Infect Dis 2016; 14: 299-312
345 Fischbach W, Andresen V, Eberlin M. et al. A Comprehensive Comparison of the Efficacy and Tolerability of Racecadotril with Other Treatments of Acute Diarrhea in Adults. Front Med (Lausanne) 2016; 3: 44
346 Kendall ME, Mody RK, Mahon BE. et al. Emergence of salsa and guacamole as frequent vehicles of foodborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1973-2008. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2013; 10: 316-322
347 Zanger P, Nurjadi D, Gabor J. et al. Effectiveness of rifaximin in prevention of diarrhoea in individuals travelling to south and southeast Asia: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2013; 13: 946-954
348 Alajbegovic S, Sanders JW, Atherly DE. et al. Effectiveness of rifaximin and fluoroquinolones in preventing travelers’ diarrhea (TD): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev 2012; 1: 39