Subscribe to RSS
DOI: 10.1055/s-0029-1246124
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York
Funktionen und Funktionsstörungen der respiratorischen Schleimhaut der Nase und der Nasennebenhöhlen
Physiology and Pathophysiology of Respiratory Mucosa of the Nose and the Paranasal SinusesPublication History
Publication Date:
29 March 2010 (online)
![](https://www.thieme-connect.de/media/lro/2010S01/lookinside/thumbnails/10.1055-s-0029-1246124-1.jpg)
Zusammenfassung
Die Anatomie und Physiologie der respiratorischen Schleimhaut von Nase und Nasennebenhöhen wird in ihren klinisch relevanten Aspekten dargestellt. Dabei werden die wesentlichen Grundlagen der Reinigungsfunktion der Nase mit mukoziliärer Clearance und nasalen Reflexen ebenso wie die Abwehrfunktion dargestellt. Der normale Ablauf der Wundheilung, Besonderheiten zur nasalen Applikation topischer Medikamente sowie die Vorstellung typischer diagnostischer Tests vervollständigen die Einblicke in die physiologischen Abläufe der respiratorischen Schleimhaut. Abschließend wird die Pathophysiologie verschiedener nicht-allergischer Rhinitiden mit Therapieempfehlungen übersichtsartig zusammengefasst.
Abstract
Physiology and Pathophysiology of Respiratory Mucosa of the Nose and the Paranasal Sinuses
In this review, anatomy and physiology of the respiratory mucosa of nose and paranasal sinuses are summarized under the aspect of its clinical significance. Basics of endonasal cleaning including mucociliary clearance and nasal reflexes, as well as defence mechanisms are explained. Physiological wound healing, aspects of endonasal topical medical therapy and typical diagnostic procedures to evaluate the respiratory functions are presented. Finally, the pathophysiologies of different subtypes of non-allergic rhinitis are outlined together with treatment recommendations.
Schlüsselwörter
Physiologie - Pathophysiologie - mukoziliäre Clearance - nicht-allergische Rhinitis - Nasenzyklus
Key words
physiology - pathophysiology - mucociliary clearance - non-allergic rhinitis - nasal cycle
Literatur
- 1 Lang J. Klinische Anatomie der Nase, Nasenhöhle und Nebenhöhlen: Grundlagen für Diagnostik und Operation.. Stuttgart, New York: Thieme; 1988
- 2 Park KS, Wells JM, Zorn AM, Wert SE, Whitsett JA. Sox17 influences the differentiation of respiratory epithelial cells. Dev Biol. 2006; 294 192-202
- 3 Badano JL, Mitsuma N, Beales PL, Katsanis N. The ciliopathies: an emerging class of human genetic disorders. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet. 2006; 7 125-148
- 4 Huang T, You Y, Spoor MS, Richer EJ, Kudva VV, Paige RC, Seiler MP, Liebler JM, Zabner J, Plopper CG, Brody SL. Foxj1 is required for apical localization of ezrin in airway epithelial cells. J Cell Sci. 2003; 116 4935-4945
- 5 Hayes JM, Kim SK, Abitua PB, Park TJ, Herrington ER, Kitayama A, Grow MW, Ueno N, Wallingford JB. Identification of novel ciliogenesis factors using a new in vivo model for mucociliary epithelial development. Dev Biol. 2007; 312 115-130
- 6 Yin Y, Bangs F, Paton I, Prescott A, Joames J, Davey M, Whitley P, Genikhovich G, Technau U, Burt D, Tickle C. The Talpid3 gene (KIAA0586) encodes a centrosomal protein. Development. 2009; 136 655-664
- 7 Mygind N, Pedersen M, Nielsen M. Morphology of the upper airway epithelium.. In The Nose. Proctor D, Andersen I (Eds). Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1982
- 8 Widdicombe JH, Bastacky SJ, Wu DX, Lee CY. Regulation of depth and composition of airway surface liquid. Eur Respir J. 1997; 10 2892-2897
- 9 Plopper CG, Nishio SJ, Alley JL, Kass P, Hyde DM. The role of the nonciliated bronchiolar epithelial (Clara) cell as the progenitor cell during bronchiolar epithelial differentiation in the perinatal rabbit lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1992; 7 606-613
- 10 Proctor D, Andersen I. The Nose. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1982
- 11 Winther B, Innes Jr DJ, Mills SE, Mygind N, Zito D, Hayden FG. Lymphocyte subsets in normal airway mucosa of the human nose. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1987; 113 59-62
- 12 Bradding P, Feather IH, Wilson S, Bardin PG, Heusser CH, Holgate ST, Howarth PH. Immunolocalization of cytokines in the nasal mucosa of normal and perennial rhinitic subjects. The mast cell as a source of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-6 in human allergic mucosal inflammation. J Immunol. 1993; 151 3853-3865
- 13 Hosemann W, Kühnel T, Burchard AK, Werner JA. Histochemical detection of lymphatic drainage pathways in the middle nasal meatus. Rhinology. 1998; 36 50-54
- 14 Pan WR, Suami H, Corlett RJ, Ashton MW. Lymphatic drainage of the nasal fossae and nasopharynx: preliminary anatomical and radiological study with clinical implications. Head Neck. 2009; 31 52-57
- 15 Malcomson K. The vasomotor activities of the nasal mucous membrane. J Laryngol Otol. 1959; 73 73-98
- 16 Fowler E. Unilateral vasomotor rhinitis due to interference with the cervical sympathetic system. Arch Otolaryngol. 1943; 37 710-712
- 17 Golding-Wood P. The surgery of nasal allergy. Int. Rhinol. 1963; 188-193
- 18 Baraniuk JN. Neuropeptides. Am J Rhinol. 1998; 12 9-16
- 19 Figueroa JM, Mansilla E, Suburo AM. Innervation of nasal turbinate blood vessels in rhinitic and nonrhinitic children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998; 157 1959-1966
- 20 Knipping S. Untersuchungen zur Regulation der seromukösen Drüsen der respiratorischen Nasenschleimhaut des Menschen.. Martin-Luther-Universität, Halle (Saale); 2004
- 21 Baraniuk JN, Silver PB, Kaliner MA, Barnes PJ. Neuropeptide Y is a vasoconstrictor in human nasal mucosa. J Appl Physiol. 1992; 73 1867-1872
- 22 Baraniuk JN, Lundgren JD, Okayama M, Goff J, Mullol J, Merida M, Shelhamer JH, Kaliner MA. Substance P and neurokinin A in human nasal mucosa. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 1991; 4 228-236
- 23 Baraniuk JN, Merck SJ. Neuroregulation of human nasal mucosa. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2009; 1170 604-609
- 24 Riederer A, Knipping S, Toleti B. Überlegungen zur Dynamik des Schwellgewebes der unteren Nasenmuschel des Menschen. Laryngorhinootologie. 2002; 81 469-475
- 25 Cole P. Nasal and oral airflow resistors. Site, function, and assessment. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1992; 118 790-793
- 26 Gudziol H, Blau B, Stadeler M. Untersuchungen zur nasalen Depositionseffizienz für Weizenmehl- und Maisstärke-Staub. Laryngorhinootologie. 2009; 88 398-404
- 27 Zhou Y, Benson JM, Irvin C, Irshad H, Cheng YS. Particle size distribution and inhalation dose of shower water under selected operating conditions. Inhal Toxicol. 2007; 19 333-342
- 28 Lacroix JS, Potter EK. Nasonasal reflex mechanisms in anaesthetized dogs. Acta Otolaryngol. 1999; 119 249-256
- 29 Baraniuk JN, Kim D. Nasonasal reflexes, the nasal cycle, and sneeze. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2007; 7 105-111
- 30 Macron JM, Wallois F, Duron B. Influence of vagal afferents in the sneeze reflex in cats. Neurosci Lett. 1994; 177 79-82
- 31 Xie X, Li Y, Chwang AT, Ho PL, Seto WH. How far droplets can move in indoor environments – revisiting the Wells evaporation-falling curve. Indoor Air. 2007; 17 211-225
- 32 Baraniuk JN, Merck SJ. Nasal reflexes: implications for exercise, breathing, and sex. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2008; 8 147-153
- 33 Riederer A, Held B, Mack B. Immunhistochemische Untersuchungen zur Verteilung der konstitutiven Stickoxidsynthase in Gefässendothelien der Nasenschleimhaut des Menschen. Laryngorhinootologie. 1999; 78 373-377
- 34 Sarkar MA. Drug metabolism in the nasal mucosa. Pharm Res. 1992; 9 1-9
- 35 Hoehn T, Huebner J, Paboura E, Krause M, Leititis JU. Effect of therapeutic concentrations of nitric oxide on bacterial growth in vitro. Crit Care Med. 1998; 26 1857-1862
- 36 Saloga J, Klimek L, Buhl R, Knop J. Allergologie-Handbuch: Grundlagen und klinische Praxis.. Stuttgart: Schattauer; 2006
- 37 Quraishi MS, Jones NS, Mason J. The rheology of nasal mucus: a review. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 1998; 23 403-413
- 38 Wilson WR, Allansmith MR. Rapid, atraumatic method for obtaining nasal mucus samples. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1976; 85 391-393
- 39 Rahmoune H, Shephard KL. State of airway surface liquid on guinea pig trachea. J Appl Physiol. 1995; 78 2020-2024
- 40 Gizurarson S. Animal models for intranasal drug delivery studies. A review article. Acta Pharm Nord. 1990; 2 105-122
- 41 Alberty J, Stoll W, Rudack C. The effect of endogenous nitric oxide on mechanical ciliostimulation of human nasal mucosa. Clin Exp Allergy. 2006; 36 1254-1259
- 42 Laoukili J, Perret E, Willems T, Minty A, Parthoens E, Houcine O, Coste A, Jorissen M, Marano F, Caput D, Tournier F. IL-13 alters mucociliary differentiation and ciliary beating of human respiratory epithelial cells. J Clin Invest. 2001; 108 1817-1824
- 43 Muns G, Singer P, Wolf F, Rubinstein I. Impaired nasal mucociliary clearance in long-distance runners. Int J Sports Med. 1995; 16 209-213
- 44 Messerklinger W. Über die Sekretströmung auf der Schleimhaut der oberen Luftwege. Z Laryngol Rhinol Otol. 1951; 30 302-308
- 45 Swart SJ, van der Baan S, Steenbergen JJ, Nauta JJ, van Kamp GJ, Biewenga J. Immunoglobulin concentrations in nasal secretions differ between patients with an IgE-mediated rhinopathy and a non-IgE-mediated rhinopathy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1991; 88 612-619
- 46 Meredith SD, Raphael GD, Baraniuk JN, Banks SM, Kaliner MA. The pathophysiology of rhinitis. III. The control of IgG secretion. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1989; 84 920-930
- 47 Wabnitz DA, Wormald PJ. A blinded, randomized, controlled study on the effect of buffered 0.9% and 3% sodium chloride intranasal sprays on ciliary beat frequency. Laryngoscope. 2005; 115 803-805
- 48 Harvey R, Hannan SA, Badia L, Scadding G. Nasal saline irrigations for the symptoms of chronic rhinosinusitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007; CD006394
- 49 Ural A, Oktemer TK, Kizil Y, Ileri F, Uslu S. Impact of isotonic and hypertonic saline solutions on mucociliary activity in various nasal pathologies: clinical study. J Laryngol Otol. 2009; 123 517-521
- 50 Psaltis AJ, Wormald PJ, Ha KR, Tan LW. Reduced levels of lactoferrin in biofilm-associated chronic rhinosinusitis. Laryngoscope. 2008; 118 895-901
- 51 Psaltis AJ, Ha KR, Beule AG, Tan LW, Wormald PJ. Confocal scanning laser microscopy evidence of biofilms in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis. Laryngoscope. 2007; 117 1302-1306
- 52 Kayser R. Die exakte Messung der Luftdurchgängigkeit der Nase. Arch. Laryngol. Rhinol. (Berl). 1895; 3 101-120
- 53 Lang C, Grützenmacher S, Mlynski B, Plontke S, Mlynski G. Investigating the nasal cycle using endoscopy, rhinoresistometry, and acoustic rhinometry. Laryngoscope. 2003; 113 284-289
- 54 Ohki M, Ogoshi T, Yuasa T, Kawano K, Kawano M. Extended observation of the nasal cycle using a portable rhinoflowmeter. J Otolaryngol. 2005; 34 346-349
- 55 Bamford OS, Eccles R. The central reciprocal control of nasal vasomotor oscillations. Pflügers Arch. 1982; 394 139-143
- 56 Eccles R. Sympathetic control of nasal erectile tissue. Eur J Respir Dis Suppl. 1983; 128 150-154
- 57 Kennedy DW, Zinreich SJ, Kumar AJ, Rosenbaum AE, Johns ME. Physiologic mucosal changes within the nose and ethmoid sinus: imaging of the nasal cycle by MRI. Laryngoscope. 1988; 98 928-933
- 58 Soane RJ, Carney AS, Jones NS, Frier M, Perkins AC, Davis SS, Illum L. The effect of the nasal cycle on mucociliary clearance. Clin Otolaryngol. 2001; 26 9-15
- 59 Keck T, Leiacker R, Meixner D, Kuhnemann S, Rettinger G. Erwärmung der Atemluft in der Nase. HNO. 2001; 49 36-40
- 60 Keck T. Untersuchungen zur Konditionierung der Atemluft in der Nase. Laryngorhinootologie. 2003; 82 289-290
- 61 Eccles R. A role for the nasal cycle in respiratory defence. Eur Respir J. 1996; 9 371-376
- 62 Mirza N, Kroger H, Doty RL. Influence of age on the ‘nasal cycle’. Laryngoscope. 1997; 107 62-66
- 63 Eccles R. The central rhythm of the nasal cycle. Acta Otolaryngol. 1978; 86 464-468
- 64 Grützenmacher S, Lang C, Mlynski R, Mlynski B, Mlynski G. Long-term rhinoflowmetry: a new method for functional rhinologic diagnostics. Am J Rhinol. 2005; 19 53-57
- 65 Heetderks R. Observations on the reaction of normal nasal mucous membrane. Amer J Med Sci. 1927; 174 231-242
- 66 Hasegawa M, Kern EB. The human nasal cycle. Mayo Clin Proc. 1977; 52 28-34
- 67 Fisher EW, Scadding GK, Lund VJ. The role of acoustic rhinometry in studying the nasal cycle. Rhinology. 1993; 31 57-61
- 68 Cole P, Haight JS. Posture and the nasal cycle. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1986; 95 233-237
- 69 Gilbert AN. Biological Rhythmicity of nasal airway patency: a re-examination of the ‘nasal cycle’. Acta Otolaryngol. 1987; 104 180-186
- 70 Shilenkova VV, Kozlov VS. A nasal cycle in healthy children. Vestn Otorinolaringol. 2008; 11-16
- 71 Atanasov AT, Dimov PD. Nasal and sleep cycle-possible synchronization during night sleep. Med Hypotheses. 2003; 61 275-277
- 72 Cole P, Haight JS. Mechanisms of nasal obstruction in sleep. Laryngoscope. 1984; 94 1557-1559
- 73 Haight JS, Cole P. Is the nasal cycle an artifact? The role of asymmetrical postures. Laryngoscope. 1989; 99 538-541s
- 74 Eccles R. The effects of posture on nasal resistance to airflow. Rhinology. 1986; 24 75
- 75 Costalonga M, Cleary P, Fischer L, Zhao Z. Intranasal bacteria induce Th1 but not Treg or Th2. Mucosal Immunology. 2009; 2 85-95
- 76 Strutz J, Mann W. Praxis der HNO-Heilkunde, Kopf- und Halschirurgie.. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2001: S1071
- 77 Nadel DM, Lanza DC, Kennedy DW. Endoscopically guided sinus cultures in normal subjects. Am J Rhinol. 1999; 13 87-90
- 78 Al-Shemari H, Abou-Hamad W, Libman M, Desrosiers M. Bacteriology of the sinus cavities of asymptomatic individuals after endoscopic sinus surgery. J Otolaryngol. 2007; 36 43-48
- 79 Lackner A, Freudenschuss K, Buzina W, Stammberger H, Panzitt T, Schosteritsch S, Braun H. Ab wann sind Pilze im Nasensekret des Menschen nachweisbar?. Laryngorhinootologie. 2004; 83 117-121
- 80 Joniau S, Vlaminck S, Van Landuyt H, Kuhweide R, Dick C. Microbiology of sinus puncture versus middle meatal aspiration in acute bacterial maxillary sinusitis. Am J Rhinol. 2005; 19 135-140
- 81 Uehara Y, Nakama H, Agematsu K, Uchida M, Kawakami Y, Abdul Fattah AS, Maruchi N. Bacterial interference among nasal inhabitants: eradication of Staphylococcus aureus from nasal cavities by artificial implantation of Corynebacterium sp. J Hosp Infect. 2000; 44 127-133
- 82 Beule AG, Hosemann W. Wundheilung und postoperative Behandlung nach Nasennebenhöhlenoperationen. HNO. 2009; 57 763-771
- 83 Shaw CK, Cowin A, Wormald PJ. A study of the normal temporal healing pattern and the mucociliary transport after endoscopic partial and full-thickness removal of nasal mucosa in sheep. Immunol Cell Biol. 2001; 79 145-148
- 84 Watelet JB, Bachert C, Gevaert P, Van Cauwenberge P. Wound healing of the nasal and paranasal mucosa: a review. Am J Rhinol. 2002; 16 77-84
- 85 Eloy P, Watelet JB, Donckier J, Gustin T, Gaudon IP, Collet S, Rombaux P, Gillard C, Bertrand B. Endoscopic and microscopic paraseptal transsphenoidal approach to the sella turcica. Rhinology. 2005; 43 271-276
- 86 Rajapaksa SP, Ananda A, Cain TM, Oates L, Wormald PJ. Frontal ostium neo-osteogenesis and restenosis after modified endoscopic Lothrop procedure in an animal model. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 2004; 29 386-388
- 87 Hosemann W, Wigand ME, Göde U, Langer F, Dunker I. Normal wound healing of the paranasal sinuses: clinical and experimental investigations. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 1991; 248 390-394
- 88 Mauro T. Natural course of wound repair versus impaired healing in chronic cutaneous ulcers.. In Wound healing and ulcers of the skin. Diagnosis and therapy – the practical approach.. Shai A, Maibach H (Eds). Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer; 2005: 7-17
- 89 Watelet JB, Gevaert P, Bachert C, Holtappels G, van Cauwenberge P. Secretion of TGF-betal, TGF-beta2, EGF and PDGF into nasal fluid after sinus surgery. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2002; 259 234-238
- 90 Singer AJ, Clark RA. Cutaneous wound healing. N Engl J Med. 1999; 341 738-746
- 91 Weber R, Keerl R. Einsatz moderner Bilddatenverarbeitung in der klinisch-rhinologischen Forschung. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 1996; (S 01) 271-296
- 92 Hosemann W, Göde U, Länger F, Röckelein G, Wigand ME. Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Wundheilung in den Nasennebenhöhlen. I. Ein Modell respiratorischer Wunden in der Kaninchen-Kieferhöhle. HNO. 1991; 39 8-12
- 93 Beule AG, Steinmeier E, Kaftan H, Biebler KE, Göpferich A, Wolf E, Hosemann W. Effects of a dexamethasone-releasing stent on osteoneogenesis in a rabbit model. Am J Rhinol Allergy. 2009; 23 433-436
- 94 Kurkinen M, Vaheri A, Roberts P, Stenmam S. Sequential appearance of fibronectin and collagen in experimental granulation tissue. Lab Invest. 1980; 43 47-51
- 95 Goslen J. Wound healing for the dermatologic surgeon. J Dermatol Surg Oncol. 1988; 14 959-972
- 96 Beule AG, Scharf C, Biebler KE, Göpferich A, Steinmeier E, Wolf E, Hosemann W, Kaftan H. Effects of topically applied dexamethasone on mucosal wound healing using a drug-releasing stent. Laryngoscope. 2008; 118 2073-2077
- 97 Forsgren K, Stierna P, Kumlien J, Carlsoo B. Regeneration of maxillary sinus mucosa following surgical removal. Experimental study in rabbits. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1993; 102 459-466
- 98 Forsgren K, Jung YG, Stierna P, Rivero C. Regeneration of nerve fibres in the maxillary sinus mucosa after experimental surgery. An immunocytochemical double-labelling study in the rabbit. Acta Otolaryngol. 1999; 119 486-491
- 99 Hosemann W, Dunker I, Göde U, Wigand ME. Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Wundheilung in den Nasennebenhöhlen. III. Endoskopie und Histologie des Operationsgebietes nach einer endonasalen Siebbeinausräumung. HNO. 1991; 39 111-115
- 100 Moriyama H, Yanagi K, Ohtori N, Asai K, Fukami M. Healing process of sinus mucosa after endoscopic sinus surgery. Am J Rhinology. 1996; 10 61-66
- 101 Huang HM, Cheng JJ, Liu CM, Lin KN. Mucosal healing and mucociliary transport change after endoscopic sinus surgery in children with chronic maxillary sinusitis. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2006; 70 1361-1367
- 102 Inanli S, Tutkun A, Batman C, Okar I, Uneri C, Sehitoglu MA. The effect of endoscopic sinus surgery on mucociliary activity and healing of maxillary sinus mucosa. Rhinology. 2000; 38 120-123
- 103 Forsgren K, Otori N, Stierna P, Kumlien J. Microvasculature, blood flow, and vasoreactivity in rabbit sinus mucosa after surgery. Laryngoscope. 1999; 109 562-568
- 104 Behrbohm H, Sydow K. Nuklearmedizinische Untersuchungen zum Reparationsverhalten der Kieferhöhlenschleimhaut nach FES. HNO. 1991; 39 173-176
- 105 Vu T, Werb Z, Gelatinase B. Structure, Regulation, and Function, in matrix metalloproteinases.. San Diego: Academic Press; 1998: 115-148
- 106 Van den Steen P, Dubois B, Nelissen I, Rudd P, Dwek R, Opdenakker G. Biochemistry and molecular biology of gelatinase B or matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol. 2002; 37 375-536
- 107 Fini ME, Parks WC, Rinehart WB, Girard MT, Matsubara M, Cook JR, West-Mays JA, Sadow PM, Burgeson RE, Jeffrey JJ, Raizman MB, Krueger RR, Zieske JD. Role of matrix metalloproteinases in failure to re-epithelialize after corneal injury. Am J Pathol. 1996; 149 1287-1302
- 108 Mohan R, Chintala SK, Jung JC, Villar WV, McCabe F, Russo LA, Lee Y, McCarthy BE, Wollenberg KR, Jester JV, Wang M, Welgus HG, Shipley JM, Senior RM, Fini ME. Matrix metalloproteinase gelatinase B (MMP-9) coordinates and effects epithelial regeneration. J Biol Chem. 2002; 277 2065-2072
- 109 Watelet JB, Claeys C, Van Cauwenberge P, Bachert C. Predictive and monitoring value of matrix metalloproteinase-9 for healing quality after sinus surgery. Wound Repair Regen. 2004; 12 412-418
- 110 Sun D, Matsune S, Ohori J, Fukuiwa T, Ushikai M, Kurono Y. TNF-alpha and endotoxin increase hypoxia-induced VEGF production by cultured human nasal fibroblasts in synergistic fashion. Auris Nasus Larynx. 2005; 32 243-249
- 111 Urschel S, Kayikci L, Wintergerst U, Notheis G, Jansson A, Belohradsky BH. Common variable immunodeficiency disorders in children: delayed diagnosis despite typical clinical presentation. J Pediatr. 2009; 154 888-894
- 112 Atef A, Zeid IA, Qotb M, El Rab EG. Effect of passive smoking on ciliary regeneration of nasal mucosa after functional endoscopic sinus surgery in children. J Laryngol Otol. 2009; 123 75-79
- 113 Tran KN, Beule AG, Singal D, Wormald PJ. Frontal ostium restenosis after the endoscopic modified Lothrop procedure. Laryngoscope. 2007; 117 1457-1462
- 114 Mlynski G, Beule A. Diagnostik der respiratorischen Funktion der Nase. HNO. 2008; 56 81-99
- 115 Yanagisawa E. The use of video in ENT endoscopy: its value in teaching. Ear Nose Throat J. 1994; 73 754-763
- 116 Athanasiadis T, Beule A, Embate J, Steinmeier E, Field J, Wormald PJ. Standardized video-endoscopy and surgical field grading scale for endoscopic sinus surgery: a multi-centre study. Laryngoscope. 2008; 118 314-319
- 117 Fokkens W, Lund V, Mullol J. EP3OS 2007: European position paper on rhinosinusitis and nasal polyps 2007. A summary for otorhinolaryngologists. Rhinology. 2007; 45 97-101
- 118 Bhattacharyya N, Fried MP. The accuracy of computed tomography in the diagnosis of chronic rhinosinusitis. Laryngoscope. 2003; 113 125-129
- 119 Howells RC, Ramadan HH. Usefulness of computed tomography and magnetic resonance in fulminant invasive fungal rhinosinusitis. Am J Rhinol. 2001; 15 255-261
- 120 Lim WK, Kumar M. Computed tomography of rhinosinusitis in immunodeficient patients: not only fungal sinusitis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003; 129 1355-1356
- 121 Bhattacharyya N. Test-retest reliability of computed tomography in the assessment of chronic rhinosinusitis. Laryngoscope. 1999; 109 1055-1058
- 122 Ganz H. Hals-Nasen-Ohren-Heilkunde. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter; 1996
- 123 Mahmood U, Ridgway J, Jackson R, Guo S, Su J, Armstrong W, Shibuya T, Crumley R, Chen Z, Wong B. In vivo optical coherence tomography of the nasal mucosa. Am J Rhinol. 2006; 20 155-159
- 124 Canciani M, Barlocco EG, Mastella G, de Santi MM, Gardi C, Lungarella G. The saccharin method for testing mucociliary function in patients suspected of having primary ciliary dyskinesia. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1988; 5 210-214
- 125 Nathan RA, Eccles R, Howarth PH, Steinsvag SK, Togias A. Objective monitoring of nasal patency and nasal physiology in rhinitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005; 115 S442-S459
- 126 Kleinschmidt EG, Witt G. Zur Beurteilung der nasalen Mukoziliartätigkeit mit einem modifizierten Saccharintest. Laryngorhinootologie. 1995; 74 286-288
- 127 Di Giuda D, Galli J, Calcagni ML, Corina L, Paludetti G, Ottaviani F, De Rossi G. Rhinoscintigraphy: a simple radioisotope technique to study the mucociliary system. Clin Nucl Med. 2000; 25 127-130
- 128 Deitmer T. A modification of the saccharine test for nasal mucociliary clearance. Rhinology. 1986; 24 237-240
- 129 Sun SS, Hsieh JF, Tsai SC, Ho YJ, Kao CH. The role of rhinoscintigraphy in the evaluation of nasal mucociliary clearance function in patients with sinusitis. Nucl Med Commun. 2000; 21 1029-1032
- 130 Peksoy I, Ugur MB, Altin R, Cinar F, Uzun L, Cabuk M, Kart L. Evaluation of nasal mucociliary functions with rhinoscintigraphy in coal workers’pneumoconiosis. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 2005; 67 163-167
- 131 Taylor RE. Abnormal mucociliary transport study in a patient with Kartagener syndrome. Clin Nucl Med. 2006; 31 240-242
- 132 Hüttenbrink KB, Wrede H, Lagemann S, Schleicher E, Hummel T. Lokalisierte, endonasale Messung der mukoziliaren Transportgeschwindigkeit als neues Verfahren für die nasale Diagnostik. Laryngorhinootologie. 2006; 85 24-31
- 133 Takeuchi K, Suzumura E, Majima Y, Sakakura Y. Effect of atropine on nasal mucociliary clearance. Acta Otolaryngol. 1990; 110 120-123
- 134 Caruso G, Gelardi M, Passali GC, de Santi MM. Nasal scraping in diagnosing ciliary dyskinesia. Am J Rhinol. 2007; 21 702-705
- 135 Athanasiadis T, Beule AG, Robinson BH, Robinson SR, Shi Z, Wormald PJ. Effects of a novel chitosan gel on mucosal wound healing following endoscopic sinus surgery in a sheep model of chronic rhinosinusitis. Laryngoscope. 2008; 118 1088-1094
- 136 Dimova S, Jorissen M. High-speed digital imaging method for ciliary beat frequency measurements. 2005;
- 137 Jorissen M, Bessems. Normal ciliary beat frequency after ciliogenesis in nasal epithelial cells cultured sequentially as monolayer and in suspension. Acta Otolaryngol. 1995; 115 66-70
- 138 Jorissen M, Willems T. Ciliary function analysis for the diagnosis of primary ciliary dyskinesia. Acta Otolaryngol. 2000; 120 291-295
- 139 Abanses JC, Arima S, Rubin BK. Vicks VapoRub induces mucin secretion, decreases ciliary beat frequency, and increases tracheal mucus transport in the ferret trachea. Chest. 2009; 135 143-148
- 140 Even-Tzur N, Kloog Y, Wolf M, Elad D. Mucus secretion and cytoskeletal modifications in cultured nasal epithelial cells exposed to wall shear stresses. Biophys J. 2008; 95 2998-3008
- 141 Watelet JB, Gevaert P, Holtappels G, Van Cauwenberge P, Bachert C. Collection of nasal secretions for immunological analysis. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2004; 261 242-246
- 142 Ha KR, Psaltis AJ, Tan L, Wormald PJ. A sheep model for the study of biofilms in rhinosinusitis. Am J Rhinol. 2007; 21 339-345
- 143 Beule AG, Hosemann W. Bakterielle Biofilme. Laryngorhinootologie. 2007; 86 886-895
- 144 Clement PA, Gordts F. Consensus report on acoustic rhinometry and rhinomanometry. Rhinology. 2005; 43 169-179
- 145 Clement PA. Committee report on standardization of rhinomanometry. Rhinology. 1984; 22 151-155
- 146 Snow JB, Ashley WP. Ballenger’s Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery. McGrath-Hill Professional; 2009
- 147 Thulesius HL, Thulesius HO, Jessen M. What happens to patients with nasal stuffiness and pathological rhinomanometry left without surgery?. Rhinology. 2009; 47 24-27
- 148 Hilberg O. Objective measurement of nasal airway dimensions using acoustic rhinometry: methodological and clinical aspects. Allergy. 2002; 57 (S 70) 5-39
- 149 Bermuller C, Kirsche H, Rettinger G, Riechelmann H. Diagnostic accuracy of peak nasal inspiratory flow and rhinomanometry in functional rhinosurgery. Laryngoscope. 2008; 118 605-610
- 150 Mlynski G, Low J. Die Rhinoresistometrie-eine Weiterentwicklung der Rhinomanometrie. Laryngorhinootologie. 1993; 72 608-610
- 151 Grützenmacher S, Mlynski G, Mlynski B, Lang C. Die Objektivierung des Schwellungszustandes der Nasenschleimhaut-ein Vergleich von vier Messmethoden. Laryngorhinootologie. 2003; 82 645-649
- 152 Temmel AF, Toth J, Marks B, Jager S, Berger U, Reiser K, Horak F. Rhinoresistometry versus rhinomanometry – an evaluation. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1998; 110 612-615
- 153 Mayhew TM, O’Flynn P. Validation of acoustic rhinometry by using the Cavalieri principle to estimate nasal cavity volume in cadavers. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 1993; 18 220-225
- 154 Hilberg O, Jackson AC, Swift DL, Pedersen OF. Acoustic rhinometry: evaluation of nasal cavity geometry by acoustic reflection. J Appl Physiol. 1989; 66 295-303
- 155 Burres SA. Acoustic rhinometry of the oriental nose. Am J Rhinol. 1999; 13 407-410
- 156 Straszek SP, Schlunssen V, Sigsgaard T, Pedersen OF. Reference values for acoustic rhinometry in decongested school children and adults: the most sensitive measurement for change in nasal patency. Rhinology. 2007; 45 36-39
- 157 Cankurtaran M, Celik H, Coskun M, Hizal E, Cakmak O. Acoustic rhinometry in healthy humans: accuracy of area estimates and ability to quantify certain anatomic structures in the nasal cavity. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2007; 116 906-916
- 158 Riechelmann H, Rheinheimer MC, Wolfensberger M. Acoustic rhinometry in pre-school children. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 1993; 18 272-277
- 159 Straszek SP, Moeller A, Hall GL, Zhang G, Stick SM, Franklin PJ. Reference values for acoustic rhinometry in children from 4 to 13 years old. Am J Rhinol. 2008; 22 285-291
- 160 Tantilipikorn P, Jareoncharsri P, Voraprayoon S, Bunnag C, Clement PA. Acoustic rhinometry of Asian noses. Am J Rhinol. 2008; 22 617-620
- 161 Miyamoto Y, Takeuchi K, Majima Y. Measurement of nasal patency by acoustic rhinometry in Japanese school children. Auris Nasus Larynx. 2009; 36 406-410
- 162 Haight JS, Djupesland PG, Qjan W, Chatkin JM, Furlott H, Irish J, Witterick I, McClean P, Fenton RS, Hoffstein V, Zamel N. Does nasal nitric oxide come from the sinuses?. J Otolaryngol. 1999; 28 197-204
- 163 Kim JW, Min YG, Rhee CS, Lee CH, Koh YY, Rhyoo C, Kwon TY, Park SW. Regulation of mucociliary motility by nitric oxide and expression of nitric oxide synthase in the human sinus epithelial cells. Laryngoscope. 2001; 111 246-250
- 164 Durland Jr WF, Lane AP, Durland KW, Smith TL, Johnson KL, Prazma J, Pillsbury HC. Nitric oxide is a mediator of the late-phase response in an animal model of nasal allergy. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2000; 122 706-711
- 165 Silkoff PE, McClean PA, Caramori M, Slutsky AS, Zamel N. A significant proportion of exhaled nitric oxide arises in large airways in normal subjects. Respir Physiol. 1998; 113 33-38
- 166 Di Nardo W, Pitocco D, Di Leo MA, Picciotti PM, Di Stasio E, Collina C, Santini S, Scarano E, Ghirlanda G. Modifications in nasal function and nitric oxide serum level in type 1 diabetes. J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2008; 37 611-615
- 167 Hogman M, Drca N, Ehrstedt C, Merilainen P. Exhaled nitric oxide partitioned into alveolar, lower airways and nasal contributions. Respir Med. 2000; 94 985-991
- 168 Qian W, Sabo R, Ohm M, Haight JS, Fenton RS. Nasal nitric oxide and the nasal cycle. Laryngoscope. 2001; 111 1603-1607
- 169 Kirihene RK, Rees G, Wormald PJ. The influence of the size of the maxillary sinus ostium on the nasal and sinus nitric oxide levels. Am J Rhinol. 2002; 16 261-264
- 170 Silkoff P, Chatkin J, Qian W, Chakravorty S, Gutierrez C, Furlott H, McClean P. al e. Nasal nitric oxide: a comparison of measurement techniques. Am J Rhinol. 1999; 13 169-178
- 171 Subcommitee on Management of Sinusitis and Commitee on quality improvement ATS/ERS recommendations for standardized procedures for the online and offline measurement of exhaled lower respiratory nitric oxide and nasal nitric oxide, 2005. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005; 171 912-930
- 172 Gupta R, Gupta N, Turner SW. A methodology for measurements of nasal nitric oxide in children under 5 yr. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2008; 19 233-238
- 173 Qian W, Chatkin JM, Djupesland PG, McClean P, Zamel N, Irish JC, Haight JS. Unilateral nasal nitric oxide measurement after nasal surgery. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2000; 109 952-957
- 174 Bommarito L, Guida G, Heffler E, Badiu I, Nebiolo F, Usai A, De Stefani A, Rolla G. Nasal nitric oxide concentration in suspected chronic rhinosinusitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2008; 101 358-362
- 175 Delclaux C, Malinvaud D, Chevalier-Bidaud B, Callens E, Mahut B, Bonfils P. Nitric oxide evaluation in upper and lower respiratory tracts in nasal polyposis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2008; 38 1140-1147
- 176 Santamaria F, De Stefano S, Montella S, Barbarano F, Iacotucci P, Ciccarelli R, Sofia M, Maniscalco M. Nasal nitric oxide assessment in primary ciliary dyskinesia using aspiration, exhalation, and humming. Med Sci Monit. 2008; 14 CR80-CR85
- 177 Wodehouse T, Kharitonov SA, Mackay IS, Barnes PJ, Wilson R, Cole PJ. Nasal nitric oxide measurements for the screening of primary ciliary dyskinesia. Eur Respir J. 2003; 21 43-47
- 178 Monto AS. Epidemiology of viral respiratory infections. Am J Med. 2002; 112 (S 06) S4-S12
- 179 American Thoracic Society Clinical practice guideline: management of sinusitis. Pediatrics. 2001; 108 798-808
- 180 Aitken M, Taylor JA. Prevalence of clinical sinusitis in young children followed up by primary care pediatricians. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1998; 152 244-248
- 181 LaFranchi S. Disorders of the Thyroid gland.. In Nelson’s Textbook of pediatrics. Behrman R, Klingman R, Jenson H (Eds). Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2004
- 182 Belenky W, Madgy D. Nasal obstruction.. In Pediatric Otolaryngology. Bluestone C, Stoll S, Kenna M (Eds). Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1996
- 183 Mur Sierra A, Vinolas Tolosa M, Sanchez Garcia-Vao C, Garcia Lopez AC, Busquets Monge RM, Garcia Algar O, Lloreta Trull J, Bargues Cardelus R. Asociacion entre el consumo de heroina durante la gestacion y anomalias estructurales de los cilios respiratorios en el periodo neonatal. An Esp Pediatr. 2001; 55 335-338
- 184 Wallace DV, Dykewicz MS, Bernstein DI, Blessing-Moore J, Cox L, Khan DA, Lang DM, Nicklas RA, Oppenheimer J, Portnoy JM, Randolph CC, Schuller D, Spector SL, Tilles SA. The diagnosis and management of rhinitis: an updated practice parameter. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008; 122 S1-84
- 185 Ballow M, O’neil K. Approach to the patient with recurrent infections. In Allergy principles and practice. Middleton E, Reed C, Ellis E, Adkinson N, Younginer I, Busse W (Eds). St. Louis: Mosby; 1993
- 186 Tasker A, Dettmar PW, Panetti M, Koufman JA, J PB, Pearson JP. Is gastric reflux a cause of otitis media with effusion in children?. Laryngoscope. 2002; 112 1930-1934
- 187 Alobid I, Guilemany JM, Mullol J. Nasal manifestations of systemic illnesses. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2004; 4 208-216
- 188 Boot JM, Oranje AP, de Groot R, Tan G, Stolz E. Congenital syphilis. Int J STD AIDS. 1992; 3 161-167
- 189 Scadding GK. Non-allergic rhinitis: diagnosis and management. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001; 1 15-20
- 190 Toppozada H. The human nasal mucosa in the menopause (a histochemical and electron microscopic study). J Laryngol Otol. 1988; 102 314-318
- 191 Getchell ML, Chen Y, Ding X, Sparks DL, Getchell TV. Immunohistochemical localization of a cytochrome P-450 isozyme in human nasal mucosa: age-related trends. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1993; 102 368-374
- 192 Nappi C, Di Spiezio Sardo A, Guerra G, Di Carlo C, Bifulco G, Acunzo G, Sammartino A, Galli V. Comparison of intranasal and transdermal estradiol on nasal mucosa in postmenopausal women. Menopause. 2004; 11 447-455
- 193 Caruso S, Grillo C, Agnello C, Di Mari L, Farina M, Serra A. Olfactometric and rhinomanometric outcomes in post-menopausal women treated with hormone therapy: a prospective study. Hum Reprod. 2004; 19 2959-2964
- 194 Edelstein DR. Aging of the normal nose in adults. Laryngoscope. 1996; 106 1-25
- 195 Agius AM, Smallman LA, Pahor AL. Age, smoking and nasal ciliary beat frequency. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 1998; 23 227-230
- 196 Ho JC, Chan KN, Hu WH, Lam WK, Zheng L, Tipoe GL, Sun J, Leung R, Tsang KW. The effect of aging on nasal mucociliary clearance, beat frequency, and ultrastructure of respiratory cilia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001; 163 983-988
- 197 Kalmovich LM, Elad D, Zaretsky U, Adunsky A, Chetrit A, Sadetzki S, Segal S, Wolf M. Endonasal geometry changes in elderly people: acoustic rhinometry measurements. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005; 60 396-398
- 198 Settipane GA, Chafee FH. Nasal polyps in asthma and rhinitis. A review of 6 037 patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1977; 59 17-21
- 199 Joe S, Benson A. Nonallergic rhinitis.. In Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery. Cummings C (Eds). Phildalphia: Elsevier Mosby; 2005: 990-1000
- 200 Bateman ND, Woolford TJ. The rhinological side-effects of systemic drugs. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 2003; 28 381-385
- 201 Muller LM, Gorter KJ, Hak E, Goudzwaard WL, Schellevis FG, Hoepelman AI, Rutten GE. Increased risk of common infections in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin Infect Dis. 2005; 41 281-288
- 202 Ahluwalia A, Sood A, Lakshmy R, Kapil A, Pandey RM. Nasal colonization with Staphylococcus aureus in patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med. 2000; 17 487-488
- 203 Saxena AK, Panhotra BR, Venkateshappa CK, Sundaram DS, Naguib M, Uzzaman W, Al Mulhim K. The impact of nasal carriage of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus a ureus (MRSA & MSSA) on vascular access-related septicemia among patients with type-II diabetes on dialysis. Ren Fail. 2002; 24 763-777
- 204 Panierakis C, Goulielmos G, Mamoulakis D, Maraki S, Papavasiliou E, Galanakis E. Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage might be associated with vitamin D receptor polymorphisms in type 1 diabetes. Int J Infect Dis. 2009; Epub:
- 205 Sachdeva A, Sachdeva OP, Gulati SP, Kakkar V. Nasal mucociliary clearance & mucus pH in patients with diabetes mellitus. Indian J Med Res. 1993; 98 265-268
- 206 Selimoglu MA, Selimoglu E, Kurt A. Nasal mucociliary clearance and nasal and oral pH in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes. Ear Nose Throat J. 1999; 78 585-588 , 590
- 207 Deniz M, Uslu C, Ogredik EA, Akduman D, Gursan SO. Nasal mucociliary clearance in total laryngectomized patients. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2006; 263 1099-1104
- 208 Yue WL. Nasal mucociliary clearance in patients with diabetes mellitus. J Laryngol Otol. 1989; 103 853-855
- 209 Han DH, An SY, Kim SW, Kim DY, Rhee CS, Lee CH, Min YG. Primary and secondary fungal infections of the paranasal sinuses: clinical features and treatment outcomes. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl. 2007; 78-82
- 210 Rashid M, Bari A, Majeed S, Tariq KM, Haq I, Niwaz A. Mucormycosis: a devastating fungal infection in diabetics. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2005; 15 43-45
- 211 Deshazo RD. Syndromes of invasive fungal sinusitis. Med Mycol. 2009; 47 (S 01) S309-S314
- 212 Cannady SB, Batra PS, Citardi MJ, Lanza DC. Comparison of delivery of topical medications to the paranasal sinuses via „vertex-to-floor” position and atomizer spray after FESS. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005; 133 735-740
- 213 Karagama YG, Lancaster JL, Karkanevatos A, O’Sullivan G. Delivery of nasal drops to the middle meatus: which is the best head position?. Rhinology. 2001; 39 226-229
- 214 DelGaudio JM, Wise SK. Topical steroid drops for the treatment of sinus ostia stenosis in the postoperative period. Am J Rhinol. 2006; 20 563-567
- 215 Valentine R, Athanasiadis T, Thwin M, Singhal D, Weitzel EK, Wormald PJ. A prospective controlled trial of pulsed nasal nebulizer in maximally dissected cadavers. Am J Rhinol. 2008; 22 390-394
- 216 Grobler A, Weitzel EK, Beule A, Jardeleza C, Cheong YC, Field J, Wormald PJ. Pre- and postoperative sinus penetration of nasal irrigation. Laryngoscope. 2008; 118 2078-2081
- 217 Beule A, Athanasiadis T, Athanasiadis E, Field J, Wormald PJ. Efficacy of different techniques of sinonasal irrigation after modified Lothrop procedure. Am J Rhinol Allergy. 2009; 23 85-90
- 218 Jorissen M. Postoperative care following endoscopic sinus surgery. Rhinology. 2004; 42 114-120
- 219 Hosemann W, Schindler E, Wiegrebe E, Göpferich A. Innovative frontal sinus stent acting as a local drug-releasing system. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2003; 260 131-134
- 220 Merkus F, Verhoef J, Schipper N, Marttin E. Nasal mucociliary clearance as a factor in nasal drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 1998; 9 13-38
- 221 Merkle HP, Ditzinger G, Lang SR, Peter H, Schmidt MC. In vitro cell models to study nasal mucosal permeability and metabolism. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 1998; 29 51-79
- 222 Shimpi S, Chauhan B, Shimpi P. Cyclodextrins: application in different routes of drug administration. Acta Pharm. 2005; 55 139-156
- 223 Khanvilkar K, Donovan M, Flanagan D. Drug transfer through mucus. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2001; 48 173-193
- 224 Osth K, Grasjo J, Bjork E. A new method for drug transport studies on pig nasal mucosa using a horizontal Ussing chamber. J Pharm Sci. 2002; 91 1259-1273
- 225 Jadhav KR, Shaikh IM, Ambade KW, Kadam VJ. Applications of microemulsion based drug delivery system. Curr Drug Deliv. 2006; 3 267-273
- 226 Pavan B, Dalpiaz A, Ciliberti N, Biondi C, Manfredini S, Vertuani S. Progress in drug delivery to the central nervous system by the prodrug approach. Molecules. 2008; 13 1035-1065
- 227 MacGregor FB, Robson AG, Pride NB. Topical corticosteroids potentiate mucin secretion in the normal nose. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 1996; 21 76-79
- 228 Dayal P, Pillay V, Babu RJ, Singh M. Box-Behnken experimental design in the development of a nasal drug delivery system of model drug hydroxyurea: characterization of viscosity, in vitro drug release, droplet size, and dynamic surface tension. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2005; 6 E573-585
- 229 Nielsen LS, Schubert L, Hansen J. Bioadhesive drug delivery systems. I. Characterisation of mucoadhesive properties of systems based on glyceryl mono-oleate and glyceryl monolinoleate. Eur J Pharm Sci. 1998; 6 231-239
- 230 Bhat P, Flanagan M. The limitating role of mucus in drug absorption: Drug permeation through mucus solution. Int J Pharm. 1995; 126 179-187
- 231 Larhed AW, Artursson P, Grasjo J, Bjork E. Diffusion of drugs in native and purified gastrointestinal mucus. J Pharm Sci. 1997; 86 660-665
- 232 Corbo D, Liu J, Chien Y. Characterisation of the barrier properties of mucosal membranes. J Pharm Sci. 1990; 79 202-206
- 233 McMartin C, Hutchinson L, Hyde R, Peters G. Analysis of structural requirements for the absorption of drugs and macromolecules from the nasal cavity. J Pharm Sci. 1987; 76 535-540
- 234 Cornaz A, Buri P. Nasal mucosa as an absorption barrier. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 1994; 40 261-270
- 235 Ropke M, Carstens S, Holm M, Frederiksen O. Ion transport mechanisms in native rabbit nasal airway epithelium. Am J Physiol. 1996; 271 L637-L645
- 236 Flynn AN, Itani OA, Moninger TO, Welsh MJ. Acute regulation of tight junction ion selectivity in human airway epithelia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009; 106 3591-3596
- 237 Luppi B, Bigucci F, Mercolini L, Musenga A, Sorrenti M, Catenacci L, Zecchi V. Novel mucoadhesive nasal inserts based on chitosan/hyaluronate polyelectrolyte complexes for peptide and protein delivery. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2009; 61 151-157
- 238 Settipane RA, Lieberman P. Update on nonallergic rhinitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2001; 86 494-507 quiz 507-498
- 239 Baraniuk JN, Shusterman DJ. Clinical Allergy and Immunology.. Nonallergic rhinitis. New York, London: informa Healthcare; 2008
- 240 Graf P. Rhinitis medicamentosa: aspects of pathophysiology and treatment. Allergy. 1997; 52 28-34
- 241 Graf P. Rhinitis medicamentosa: a review of causes and treatment. Treat Respir Med. 2005; 4 21-29
- 242 Fleece L, Mizes JS, Jolly PA, Baldwin RL. Rhinitis medicamentosa. Conceptualization, incidence, and treatment. Ala J Med Sci. 1984; 21 205-208
- 243 Fox N. Chronic effect of epinephrine and ephedrine on the nasal mucosa. Arch Otolaryngol. 1931; 30 73-76
- 244 Graf P, Hallen H, Juto JE. The pathophysiology and treatment of rhinitis medicamentosa. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 1995; 20 224-229
- 245 Graf P, Juto JE. Sustained use of xylometazoline nasal spray shortens the decongestive response and induces rebound swelling. Rhinology. 1995; 33 14-17
- 246 Baldwin RL. Rhinitis medicamentosa (an approach to treatment). J Med Assoc State Ala. 1975; 47 33-35
- 247 Lacroix JS. Adrenergic and non-adrenergic mechanisms in sympathetic vascular control of the nasal mucosa. Acta Physiol Scand Suppl. 1989; 581 1-63
- 248 Elwany SS, Stephanos WM. Rhinitis medicamentosa. An experimental histopathological and histochemical study. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 1983; 45 187-194
- 249 Talaat M, Belal A, Aziz T, Mandour M, Maher A. Rhinitis medicamentosa: electron microscopic study. J Laryngol Otol. 1981; 95 125-131
- 250 Knipping S, Holzhausen HJ, Goetze G, Riederer A, Bloching MB. Rhinitis medicamentosa: electron microscopic changes of human nasal mucosa. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2007; 136 57-61
- 251 Lin CY, Cheng PH, Fang SY. Mucosal changes in rhinitis medicamentosa. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2004; 113 147-151
- 252 Akerlund A, Bende M. Sustained use of xylometazoline nose drops aggravetes vasomotor rhinitis. Am J Rhinol. 1991; 5 157-160
- 253 Graf P, Enerdal J, Hallen H. Ten days’ use of oxymetazoline nasal spray with or without benzalkonium chloride in patients with vasomotor rhinitis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1999; 125 1128-1132
- 254 Morris S, Eccles R, Martez SJ, Riker DK, Witek TJ. An evaluation of nasal response following different treatment regimes of oxymetazoline with reference to rebound congestion. Am J Rhinol. 1997; 11 109-115
- 255 Yoo JK, Seikaly H, Calhoun KH. Extended use of topical nasal decongestants. Laryngoscope. 1997; 107 40-43
- 256 Hakansson B, Forsgren A, Tegner H, Toremalm NG. Inhibitory effects of nasal drops components on granulocyte chemotaxis. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1989; 64 321-323
- 257 Bjerknes R, Steinsvag SK. Inhibition of human neutrophil actin polymerization, phagocytosis and oxidative burst by components of decongestive nosedrops. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1993; 73 41-45
- 258 Hallen H, Graf P. Benzalkonium chloride in nasal decongestive sprays has a long-lasting adverse effect on the nasal mucosa of healthy volunteers. Clin Exp Allergy. 1995; 25 401-405
- 259 Bernstein IL. Is the use of benzalkonium chloride as a preservative for nasal formulations a safety concern? A cautionary note based on compromised mucociliary transport. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000; 105 39-44
- 260 Graf P, Hallen H. Effect on the nasal mucosa of long-term treatment with oxymetazoline, benzalkonium chloride, and placebo nasal sprays. Laryngoscope. 1996; 106 605-609
- 261 Knipping S, Holzhausen HJ, Riederer A, Bloching M. Ultrastrukturelle Veränderungen der Nasenschleimhaut des Menschen nach Abusus von topischen alpha-Sympathomimetika. HNO. 2006; 54 742-748
- 262 Tas A, Yagiz R, Yalcin O, Uzun C, Huseyinova G, Adali MK, Karasalihoglu AR. Use of mometasone furoate aqueous nasal spray in the treatment of rhinitis medicamentosa: an experimental study. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005; 132 608-612
- 263 Ramey JT, Bailen E, Lockey RF. Rhinitis medicamentosa. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2006; 16 148-155
- 264 Keyserling HF, Grimme JD, Camacho DL, Castillo M. Nasal septal perforation secondary to rhinitis medicamentosa. Ear Nose Throat J. 2006; 85 376 378-379
- 265 Toohill RJ, Lehman RH, Grossman TW, Belson TP. Rhinitis medicamentosa. Laryngoscope. 1981; 91 1614-1621
- 266 Passali D, Salerni L, Passali GC, Passali FM, Bellussi L. Nasal decongestants in the treatment of chronic nasal obstruction: efficacy and safety of use. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2006; 5 783-790
- 267 Graf P. Long-term use of oxy- and xylometazoline nasal sprays induces rebound swelling, tolerance, and nasal hyperreactivity. Rhinology. 1996; 34 9-13
- 268 Ferguson BJ, Paramaesvaran S, Rubinstein E. A study of the effect of nasal steroid sprays in perennial allergic rhinitis patients with rhinitis medicamentosa. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2001; 125 253-260
- 269 Elwany S, Abdel-Salaam S. Treatment of rhinitis medicamentosa with fluticasone propionate – an experimental study. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2001; 258 116-119
- 270 Caffier PP, Frieler K, Scherer H, Sedlmaier B, Goktas O. Rhinitis medicamentosa: therapeutic effect of diode laser inferior turbinate reduction on nasal obstruction and decongestant abuse. Am J Rhinol. 2008; 22 433-439
- 271 Milosevic D, Janosevic L, Dergenc R, Vasic M. Pathologic conditions associated with drug-induced rhinitis. Srp Arh Celok Lek. 2004; 132 14-17
- 272 Graf PM, Hallen H. One year follow-up of patients with rhinitis medicamentosa after vasoconstrictor withdrawal. Am J Rhinol. 1997; 11 67-72
- 273 Moore EJ, Kern EB. Atrophic rhinitis: a review of 242 cases. Am J Rhinol. 2001; 15 355-361
- 274 Bunnag C, Jareoncharsri P, Tansuriyawong P, Bhothisuwan W, Chantarakul N. Characteristics of atrophic rhinitis in Thai patients at the Siriraj Hospital. Rhinology. 1999; 37 125-130
- 275 Sibert JR, Barton RP. Dominant inheritance in a family with primary atrophic rhinitis. J Med Genet. 1980; 17 39-40
- 276 Mehrotra R, Singhal J, Kawatra M, Gupta SC, Singh M. Pre and post-treatment histopathological changes in atrophic rhinitis. Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 2005; 48 310-313
- 277 Jiang HL, Park IK, Shin NR, Kang SG, Yoo HS, Kim SI, Suh SB, Akaike T, Cho CS. In vitro study of the immune stimulating activity of an atrophic rhinitis vaccine associated to chitosan microspheres. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2004; 58 471-476
- 278 Effat KG, Madany NM. Microbiological study of role of fungi in primary atrophic rhinitis. J Laryngol Otol. 2009; 123 631-634
- 279 Garcia GJ, Bailie N, Martins DA, Kimbell JS. Atrophic rhinitis: a CFD study of air conditioning in the nasal cavity. J Appl Physiol. 2007; 103 1082-1092
- 280 Singh M, Jain V, Singh SP, Gupta SC. Endoscopic dacryocystorhinostomy in cases of dacryocystitis due to atrophic rhinitis. J Laryngol Otol. 2004; 118 426-428
- 281 Yanagisawa E, Scher DA. Endoscopic views of choanal stenosis in secondary atrophic rhinitis. Ear Nose Throat J. 2003; 82 666-668
- 282 Dutt SN, Kameswaran M. The aetiology and management of atrophic rhinitis. J Laryngol Otol. 2005; 119 843-852
- 283 Ishikawa S, Nakayama T, Watanabe M, Matsuzawa T. Visualization of flow resistance in physiological nasal respiration: analysis of velocity and vorticities using numerical simulation. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006; 132 1203-1209
- 284 Hirt R, Paulsen F, Neumann K, Knipping S. Immunhistochemischer Nachweis von Caspase 3 bei verschiedenen Nasenschleimhauterkrankungen des Menschen. HNO. 2009; 57 466-472
- 285 Sayed RH, Abou-Elhamd KE, Abdel-Kader M, Saleem TH. Study of surfactant level in cases of primary atrophic rhinitis. J Laryngol Otol. 2000; 114 254-259
- 286 Pruliere-Escabasse V, Escudier E, Balheda R, Soria JC, Coste A, Massard C. Rhinitis and epistaxis in patients treated by anti-angiogenic therapy. Invest New Drugs. 2009; 27 285-286
- 287 Ly TH, de Shazo RD, Olivier J, Stringer SP, Daley W, Stodard CM. Diagnostic criteria for atrophic rhinosinusitis. Am J Med. 2009; 122 747-753
- 288 Wachsberger A. A new technic in the surgical treatment of ozena. Arch Otolaryngol. 1934; 19 370-382
- 289 Boyce J, Eccles R. Do chronic changes in nasal airflow have any physiological or pathological effect on the nose and paranasal sinuses?. A systematic review. Clin Otolaryngol. 2006; 31 15-19
- 290 Eccles R. Nasal airflow in health and disease. Acta Otolaryngol. 2000; 120 580-595
- 291 Dykewicz MS, Fineman S, Skoner DP, Nicklas R, Lee R, Blessing-Moore J, Li JT, Bernstein IL, Berger W, Spector S, Schuller D. Diagnosis and management of rhinitis: complete guidelines of the Joint Task Force on Practice Parameters in Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1998; 81 478-518
- 292 Neher A, Gstottner M, Thaurer M, Augustijns P, Reinelt M, Schobersberger W. Influence of essential and fatty oils on ciliary beat frequency of human nasal epithelial cells. Am J Rhinol. 2008; 22 130-134
- 293 Zenner H. Praktische Therapie von Hals-Nasen-Ohren-Krankheiten. Stuttgart, New York: Schattauer; 2008. 494
- 294 Jaswal A, Jana AK, Sikder B, Nandi TK, Sadhukhan SK, Das A. Novel treatment of atrophic rhinitis: early results. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2008; 265 1211-1217
- 295 Dykewicz MS, Fineman S. Executive Summary of Joint Task Force Practice Parameters on Diagnosis and Management of Rhinitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1998; 81 463-468
- 296 Jiang RS, Hsu CY, Chen CC, Jan YJ, Jang JW. Endoscopic sinus surgery and postoperative intravenous aminoglycosides in the treatment of atrophic rhinitis. Am J Rhinol. 1998; 12 325-333
- 297 Lobo CJ, Hartley C, Farrington WT. Closure of the nasal vestibule in atrophic rhinitis – a new non-surgical technique. J Laryngol Otol. 1998; 112 543-546
- 298 Lal D, Corey JP. Vasomotor rhinitis update. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004; 12 243-247
- 299 Silvers WS. The skier’s nose: a model of cold-induced rhinorrhea. Ann Allergy. 1991; 67 32-36
- 300 Giannessi F, Ursino F, Fattori B, Giambelluca MA, Scavuzzo MC, Ceccarelli F, Ruffoli R. Immunohistochemical localization of 3-nitrotyrosine in the nasal respiratory mucosa of patients with vasomotor rhinitis. Acta Otolaryngol. 2005; 125 65-71
- 301 Papon JF, Brugel-Ribere L, Fodil R, Croce C, Larger C, Rugina M, Coste A, Isabey D, Zerah-Lancner F, Louis B. Nasal wall compliance in vasomotor rhinitis. J Appl Physiol. 2006; 100 107-111
- 302 Vayisoglu Y, Ozcan C, Pekdemir H, Gorur K, Pata YS, Camsari A. Autonomic nervous system evaluation using heart rate variability parameters in vasomotor rhinitis patients. J Otolaryngol. 2006; 35 338-342
- 303 Brandt D, Bernstein JA. Questionnaire evaluation and risk factor identification for nonallergic vasomotor rhinitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2006; 96 526-532
- 304 Lieberman P, Kaliner MA, Wheeler WJ. Open-label evaluation of azelastine nasal spray in patients with seasonal allergic rhinitis and nonallergic vasomotor rhinitis. Curr Med Res Opin. 2005; 21 611-618
- 305 Arikan OK, Koc C, Kendi T, Muluk NB, Ekici A. CT assessment of the effect of fluticasone propionate aqueous nasal spray treatment on lower turbinate hypertrophy due to vasomotor rhinitis. Acta Otolaryngol. 2006; 126 37-42
- 306 Jacobs R, Lieberman P, Kent E, Silvey M, Locantore N, Philpot EE. Weather/temperature-sensitive vasomotor rhinitis may be refractory to intranasal corticosteroid treatment. Allergy Asthma Proc. 2009; 30 120-127
- 307 Ozcan C, Vayisoglu Y, Dogu O, Gorur K. The effect of intranasal injection of botulinum toxin A on the symptoms of vasomotor rhinitis. Am J Otolaryngol. 2006; 27 314-318
- 308 Fleckenstein J, Raab C, Gleditsch J, Ostertag P, Rasp G, Stor W, Irnich D. Impact of acupuncture on vasomotor rhinitis: a randomized placebo-controlled pilot study. J Altern Complement Med. 2009; 15 391-398
- 309 Araujo E, Palombini BC, Cantarelli V, Pereira A, Mariante A. Microbiology of middle meatus in chronic rhinosinusitis. Am J Rhinol. 2003; 17 9-15
- 310 Gordts F, Halewyck S, Pierard D, Kaufman L, Clement P. Microbiology of the middle meatus: a comparison between normal adults and children. J Laryngol Otol. 2000; 114 184-188
- 311 Gwaltney J. Microbiology of sinusitis.. In Sinusitis – Pathophysiology and treatment. Druce H (Eds). New York: Dekker; 1994
- 312 Kirtsreesakul V, Tuntaraworasin J, Thamjarungwong B. Microbiology and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of commensal flora in the middle nasal meatus. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2008; 117 914-918
- 313 Klossek J, Dubreuil L, Richet H, Richet B, Sedallian A, Beutter P. Bacteriology of the adult middle meatus. J Laryngol Otol. 1996; 110 847-849
Korrespondenzadresse
Dr. med. Achim G. Beule
Klinik für Hals-Nasen-Ohrenheilkunde
Kopf- und Halschirurgie der
Universität Greifswald
Walther-Rathenau-Straße 43–45
17487 Greifswald
Email: achim.beule@uni-greifswald.de