Zusammenhang von Schädigungen, sekundären Anpassungen und Funktionen nach Hirnverletzung

Zusammenfassung

Die Aktivitäten des täglichen Lebens erfordern neben ausreichender Muskelaktivität neuromuskuläre Koordination, Beweglichkeit, Gleichgewicht, Ausdauer und Fitness. Auch für Patienten mit einem Upper-Motor-Neuron-Syndrom sind intensives aufgabenorientiertes Training, funktionelle Kraftübungen sowie Übungen zur Verbesserung der Beweglichkeit notwendig, um limitierende Beeinträchtigungen in ihrem Alltag zu überwinden. Lesen Sie hier, wie das Neurorehateam diesen Prozess positiv mitgestalten kann.

Literatur

• 01 Ada L , Vattanasilp W , O‘Dwyer N  et al.. Does spasticity contribute to walking dysfunction after stroke.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998;  64 635-638
• 02 Ada L , Canning C . Anticipating and avoiding muscle shortening. In: Ada L , Canning C  Key Issues in Neurological Physiotherapy. Butterworth Heinemann; Oxford; 1990: 219-236
• 03 Ada L , Canning  C . Changing the way we view the contribution of motor impairments to physical disability after stroke. In: Refshauge K , Ada L , Ellis E  Science-Based Rehabilitation. Butterworth Heinemann; Oxford; 2005
• 04 Ada L , O‘Dwyer N . Do associated reactions in the upper limb after stroke contribute to contracture formation?.  Clin Rehabil. 2001;  15 186-194
• 05 Ada L , Canning  C , O‘Dwyer N . Effect of muscle length on strength and dexterity after stroke.  Clin Rehabil. 2000;  14 55-61
• 06 Ada L , Canning C G, Low S-L . Stroke patients have selective muscle weakness in shortened range.  Brain. 2003;  126 724-731
• 07 Ada L , Goddard E , McCully J  et al.. Thirty minutes of positioning reduces the development of shoulder external rotation contractures after stroke: a randomized controlled trial.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;  86 230-234
• 08 Akeson  W H, Amiel D , Abel M F et al.. Effects of immobilization on joints.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1987;  219 28-37
• 09 Arendt-Nielsen L , Gantchev N , Sinkjaer T . The influence of muscle length on muscle fibre conduction velocity and development of muscle fatigue.  Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1992;  85 166-172
• 10 Ashworth B . Preliminary trial of carisoprodol in multiple sclerosis.  Practitioner. 1964;  192 540-542
• 11 Beer R F, Given J D, Dewald P A. Task-dependent weakness at the elbow in patients with hemiparesis.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;  80 766-772
• 12 Berg H E, Tesch P A. Changes in muscle function in response to 10 days of lower limb unloading in humans.  Acta Physiol Scand. 1996;  157 63-70
• 13 Berger W , Quintern J , Dietz V . Pathophysiology of gait in children with cerebral palsy.  Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1982;  53 538-548
• 14 Berger W , Horstmann G , Dietz V . Tension development and muscle activation in the leg during gait in spastic hemiparesis: independence of muscle hypertonia and exaggerated stretch reflexes.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1984;  47 1029-1033
• 15 Bernhardt J , Dewey H M, Thrift A G et al.. Inactive and alone: Physical activity in the first 14 days of acute stroke unit care.  Stroke. 2004;  35 1005-1009
• 16 Bohannon R W. Relative decreases in knee extension torque with increased knee extension velocities in stroke patients with hemiparesis.  Phys Ther. 1987;  67 1218-1220
• 17 Bohannon R W. Muscle strength changes in hemiparetic stroke patients during inpatient rehabilitation.  J Neurolog Rehabil. 1988;  2 163-166
• 18 Booth C M, Cortina-Borja M J, Theologis T N. Collagen accumulation in muscles of children with cerebral palsy and correlation with severity of spasticity.  Dev Med Child Neurol. 2001;  43 314-320
• 19 Bourbonnais D , Vanden Noven S . Weakness in patients with hemiparesis.  Am J Occup Ther. 1989;  43 313-319
• 20 Burke D . Spasticity as an adaptation to pyramidal tract injury. In: Waxman S G Advances in Neurology, 47: Functional Recovery in Neurological Disease. Raven Press; New York; 1988: 401-423
• 21 Burke D , Gandevia S C. Interfering cutaneous stimulation and the muscle afferent contribution to cortical potentials.  Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1988;  70 118-125
• 22 Burke D , Andrews C , Ashby P . Autogenic effect of static muscle stretch in spastic man.  Arch Neurol. 1971;  25 367-372
• 23 Burke D , Gillies J , Lance J . Hamstrings stretch reflex in human spasticity.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1971;  34 464-468
• 24 Burne J A, Carlton V L, O‘Dwyer N J. The spasticity paradox: movement disorder or disorder of resting limbs?.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;  76 47-54
• 25 Butefisch C , Hummelsheim H , Mauritz K H. Repetitive training of isolated movements improves the outcome of motor rehabilitation of the centrally paretic hand.  J Neurol Sci. 1995;  130 59-68
• 26 Calautti C , Baron J C. Functional neuro imaging studies of motor recovery after stroke in adults: a review.  Stroke. 2003;  34 1553-1566
• 27 Canning C G, Ada L , O‘Dwyer N . Slowness to develop force contributes to weakness after stroke.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;  80 66-70
• 28 Canning C , Ada L , Adams R  et al.. Loss of strength is a more significant contributor than loss of dexterity to physical disability after stroke.  Clin Rehabil. 2004;  18 300-308
• 29 Carey J R, Burghardt T P. Movement dysfunction following central nervous system lesions: a problem of neurologic or muscular impairment.  Phys Ther. 1993;  73 538-547
• 30 Carey L M, Allison J D, Mundale M O. Electromyographic study of muscular overflow during precision handgrip.  Phys Ther. 1983;  63 505-511
• 31 Carr J H, Shepherd R B. A Motor Relearning Programme for Stroke. 2nd edn Butterworth Heinemann; Oxford; 1987
• 32 Carr J H, Shepherd R B. A motor learning model for stroke rehabilitation.  Physiother. 1989;  75 372-380
• 33 Carr J H, Shepherd R B, Ada L . Spasticity: research findings and implications for intervention.  Physiother. 1995;  81 421-429
• 34 Carr J H, Shepherd R B, Nordholm L  et al.. A motor assessment scale for stroke.  Phys Ther. 1985;  65 175-180
• 35 Carr J H, Shepherd R B. Stroke. Guidelines for Exercise and Training to Optimize Motor Skill. Elsevier; Oxford; 2003
• 36 Carr J H, Shepherd R B. Neurological Rehabilitation.  edn 2 Optimising Motor Performance. 2010; 
• 37 Cavallari P , Katz R . Pattern of projections of group 1 afferents from forearm muscles to motor neurones supplying biceps and triceps muscles in man.  Exp Brain Res. 1989;  78 465-478
• 38 Chae J , Yang G , Park B K et al.. Muscle weakness and cocontraction in upper limb hemiparesis: relationship to motor impairment and physical disability.  Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2002;  16 241-248
• 39 Chapman C E, Wiesendanger M . The physiological and anatomical basis of spasticity: a review.  Physiother Can. 1982;  34 125-136
• 40 Colebatch J G, Gandevia S S, Spira P J. Voluntary muscle strength in hemiparesis: distribution of weakness at the elbow.  J Neuro, Neurosurg, Psychiat. 1986;  49 1019-1024
• 41 Colebatch J G, Gandevia; S C. The distribution of muscular weakness in upper motor neuron lesions affecting the arm.  Brain. 1989;  112 749-763
• 42 Crenna P . Spasticity and ”spastic” gait in children with cerebral palsy.  Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1998;  22 571-578
• 43 Crenna P . Pathophysiology of lengthening contractions in human spasticity: a study of the hamstring muscles during locomotion.  Pathophysiol. 1999;  5 283-297
• 44 Dean C M, Richards C L, Malouin F . Task-related training improves performance of locomotor tasks in chronic stroke: a randomized, controlled pilot trial.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2000;  81 409-417
• 45 Delp S L, Hess W E, Hungerford D S et al.. Variation of rotation movement arms with hip flexion.  J Biomech. 1991;  32 493-501
• 46 Dietz V , Berger W . Normal and impaired regulation of muscle stiffness in gait: a new hypothesis about muscle hypertonia.  Exp Neurol. 1983;  79 680-687
• 47 Dietz V , Sinkjaer T . Spastic movement disorder: impaired reflex function and altered muscle mechanics.  Lancet Neurol. 2007;  6 725-733
• 48 Dietz V , Quintern J , Berger W . Electrophysiological studies of gait in spasticity and rigidity. Evidence that altered mechanical properties of muscle contribute to hypertonia.  Brain. 1981;  104 431-449
• 49 Dietz V , Trippel M , Berger W . Reflex activity and muscle tone during elbow movements in patients with spastic paresis.  Ann Neurol. 1991;  30 767-779
• 50 Duchateau J , Hainaut K . Effects of immobilization on contractile properties, recruitment and firing rates of human motor units.  J Physiol . 1990;  422 55-65
• 51 Duchateau J , Enoka R M. Neural adaptations with chronic activity patterns in able-bodied humans.  Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;  81 17-27
• 52 Eng J J, Chu K S, Kim C M et al.. A community-based group exercise program for persons with chronic stroke.  Med Sci Sports & Exercise. 2003;  35 1271-1278
• 53 Engardt M , Knutsson E , Johnsson M  et al.. Dynamic muscle strength training in stroke patients: effects on knee extension torque, electromyographic activity, and motor function.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1995;  76 419-425
• 54 Enoka R M. Neural adaptations with chronic physical activity.  J Biomech. 1997;  30 447-455
• 55 Farmer S F, Swash M , Ingram  D A et al.. Changes in motor unit synchronization following central nervous lesions in man.  J Physiol. 1993;  463 83-105
• 56 Frontera W R, Grimby L , Larsson L . Firing rate of the lower motoneuron and contractile properties of its muscle fibers after motoneuron lesion in man.  Muscle Nerve. 1997;  20 938-947
• 57 Gandevia S C. Strength changes in hemiparesis: measurements and mechanisms. In: Thilmann A F, Burke D J, Rymer W Z Spasticity: Mechanisms and Management. Springer-Verlag; Berlin; 1993: 111-122
• 58 Gemperline J J, Allen S , Walk D  et al.. Characteristics of motor unit discharge in subjects with hemiparesis.  Muscle Nerve. 1995;  18 1101-1114
• 59 Giuliani C A. Adult hemiplegic gait. In: Smidt G L Gait in Rehabilitation. Churchill Livingstone; New York; 1990: 253-266
• 60 Given J D, Dewald J P, Rymer W Z. Joint dependent passive resistance in paretic and controlateral limbs of spastic patients with hemispheric stroke.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1995;  59 271-275
• 61 Gracies J M. Pathophysiology of impairment in spasticity: stretch as a treatment of spastic hypertonia.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;  12 747-768
• 62 Gracies J . Pathophysiology of spastic paresis. I: paresis and soft tissue changes.  Muscle Nerve. 2005;  31 535-551
• 63 Gracies J M. Pathophysiology of spastic paresis. II: emergence of muscle overactivity.  Muscle Nerve. 2005;  31 552-571
• 64 Gracies J M, Singer B J, Dunne J W. The role of botulinum toxin injections in the management of muscle overactivity of the lower limb.  Disabil Rehabil. 2007;  29 1789-1805
• 65 Herbert R . The passive mechanical properties of muscle and their adaptations to altered pattern of use.  Aust J Physiother. 1988;  34 141-149
• 66 Herbert R D, Balnave R J. The effect of position of immobilization on resting length, resting stiffness, and weight of the soleus muscle of the rabbit.  J Orthop Res. 1993;  11 358-366
• 67 Herzog W , Koh T , Hasler E  et al.. Specificity and plasticity of mammalian skeleton muscles.  J Appl Biomech. 1991;  16 98-109
• 68 Hill D K. Tension due to interaction between the sliding filaments in resting striated muscle: the effect of stimulation.  J Physiol. 1968;  637-684
• 69 Horsley S A, Herbert R D, Ada L . Four weeks of daily stretch has little or no effect on wrist contracture after stroke: a randomized controlled trial.  Aust J Physiother. 2007;  53 239-245
• 70 Hufschmidt A , Mauritz K H. Chronic transformation of muscle in spasticity: a peripheral contribution to increased tone.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1985;  48 676-685
• 71 Jones D A, Round J M. Skeletal Muscle in Health and Disease; A Textbook of Muscle Physiology. Manchester University Press; Manchester; 1996
• 72 Katz R T, Rovai G P, Brait C  et al.. Objective quantification of spastic hypertonia: correlation with clinical findings.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1992;  73 339-347
• 73 Katz R T, Rymer W Z. Spastic hypertonia: mechanisms and measurement.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1989;  70 144-155
• 74 Kautz S A, Brown D A. Relationships between timing of muscle excitation and impaired motor performance during cyclical lower extremity movement in post-stroke hemiplegia.  Brain. 1998;  121 515-526
• 75 Kilbreath S L, Gandevia S C. Limited independent flexion of thumb and fingers in human subjects.  J Neurophysiol. 1994;  479 487-497
• 76 Kleim J L, Jones T A, Schallet T . Motor enrichment and the induction of plasticity before or after brain injury.  Neurochem Res. 2003;  28 1757-1769
• 77 Lamontagne A , Richards C L, Malouin F . Coactivation during gait as an adaptive behavior after stroke.  J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2000;  10 407-415
• 78 Lamontagne A , Malouin F , Richards C L et al.. Mechanisms of disturbed motor control in ankle weakness during gait after stroke.  Gait Posture. 2002;  15 244-255
• 79 Lance J W. Symposium synopsis. In: Feldman R G, Young R R, Koella W P Spasticity: Disordered Motor Control. Year Book Medical Publishers; Chicago; 1980: 485-494
• 80 Lance J W. What is spasticity?.  Lancet. 1990;  335 606
• 81 Landau W M. Parables of palsy, pills and PT pedagogy: a spastic dialectic.  Neurol. 1988;  38 1496-1499
• 82 Lang C E, Schieber M H. Reduced muscle selectivity during indivuated finger movements in humans after damage to the motor cortex or corticospinal tract.  J Neurophysiol. 2004;  91 1722-1733
• 83 Latash L P, Latash M L. A new book by N.A. Bernstein: On dexterity and its development.  J Mot Behav. 1994;  26 56-62
• 84 Levin M F, Selles R W, Verheul M H et al.. Deficits in the coordination of agonist and antagonist muscles in stroke patients: implications for normal motor control.  Brain Res. 2000;  853 352-369
• 85 Lieber R L. Comparison between animal and human studies of skeletal muscle adaptation to chronic stimulation.  Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1988;  233 19-24
• 86 Lieber R L, Steinman S , Barash I A et al.. Structural and functional changes in spastic skeletal muscle.  Muscle Nerve. 2004;  29 615-627
• 87 Lomoglio M J, Eng J J. Nonuniform weakness in the paretic knee and compensatory strength gains in the nonparetic knee occur after stroke.  Cerebrovasc Dis. 2008;  26 584-591
• 88 McComas A J. Human neuromuscular adaptations that accompany changes in activity.  Med Sci Sports Exercise. 1994;  26 1498-1509
• 89 McCrea P H, Eng J J, Hodgson A J. Linear spring-damper model of the hypertonic elbow: reliability and validity.  J Neurosci Methods. 2003;  128 121-128
• 90 Malouin F , Bolleville C , Richards C  et al.. Non-reflex mediated changes in plantarflexor muscles early after stroke.  Scand J Rehabil Med. 1997;  29 147-153
• 91 Mercier C , Bourbonnais D . Relative shoulder flexor and handgrip strength is related to upper limb function after stroke.  Clin Rehabil. 2004;  18 215-221
• 92 Mirbagheri M M, Barbeau H , Kearney R E. Intrinsic and reflex contributions to human ankle stiffness: variation with activation level and position.  Exp Brain Res. 2008;  135 423-436
• 93 Newham D J. Muscle performance after stroke. In: Refshauge K , Ada L , Ellis E  Science-Based Rehabilitation. Theory into Practice. Elsevier; Oxford; 2005
• 94 Newham D J, Maystone M J, Davies J M. Quadriceps isometric force, voluntary activation and relaxation speed in stroke.  Muscle Nerve. 1996;  4 S53
• 95 Newham D J, Hsaio S F. Knee muscle isometric strength, voluntary activation and antagonist co-contraction in the first six months after stroke.  Disabil Rehabil. 2001;  23 379-386
• 96 Neilson J B, Crone C , Hultborn H . The spinal pathophysiology of spasticity – from a basic science point of view.  Acta Physiol. 2007;  189 171-180
• 97 O’Dwyer N J, Ada L , Neilson P D. Spasticity and muscle contracture following stroke.  Brain. 1996;  119 1737-1749
• 98 Olney S J. Training gait after stroke: a biomechanical perspective. In: Refshauge K , Ada L , Ellis E  Science-Based Rehabilitation. Theories into Practice. Butterworth Heinemann; Oxford; 2005
• 99 Olney S J, Griffin M P, Monga T N et al.. Work and power in gait of stroke patients.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1991;  72 309-314
• 100 Olney S J, Richards C . Hemiparetic gait following stroke. Pt 1: characteristics.  Gait Posture. 1996;  4 136-148
• 101 Pang M Y C, Eng J J, Dawson A S et al.. A community-based fitness and mobility exercise program for older adults with chronic stroke: a randomized, controlled trial.  J Amer Geriatr Soc. 2005;  53 1667-1674
• 102 Pearson K , Gordon  J . Spinal reflexes. In: Kandel E R, Schwartz T M, Jessell T M Principles of Neuroscience. 4th edn McGraw-Hill; New York; 2001: 713-735
• 103 Perry J . Rehabilitation of spasticity. In: Feldman R G, Young R R, Koella W P Spasticity: Disordered Motor Control. Year Book Medical Publishers; Chicago; 1980: 87-100
• 104 Porter R , Lemon R . Corticospinal Function and Voluntary Movement. Oxford University Press; New York; 1993
• 105 Proske U , Morgan D L, Gregory J E. Thixotropy in skeletal muscle and in muscle spindles: a review.  Prog Neurobiol. 1993;  41 705-721
• 106 Refshauge K , Ada L , Ellis E  eds. Science-Based Rehabilitation. Butterworth Heinemann; Oxford; 2005
• 107 Riley N A, Bilodeau M . Changes in upper limb joint torque patterns and EMG signals with fatigue following a stroke.  Disabil Rehabil. 2002;  24 961-969
• 108 Rothwell J C, Traub M M, Marsden  C D. Influence of voluntary intent on the human longlatency stretch reflex.  Nature. 1980;  286 496-498
• 109 Salazar-Torres J J, Pandyan A D, Price C I M et al.. Does spasticity result from hyperactive stretch reflexes? Preliminary findings from a stretch reflex characterization study.  Disabil Rehabil. 2004;  26 756-760
• 110 Sharp  S A, Brouwer B J. Isokinetic strength training of the hemiparetic knee: effects on function and spasticity.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1997;  78 1231-1236
• 111 Sheean G . The pathophysiology of spasticity.  Eur J Neurol. 2002;  (S 1) 3-9
• 112 Shepherd R B, Carr J H. An emergent or dynamical systems view of movement dysfunction.  Aust J Physiother. 1991;  37 4-5
• 113 Shepherd R B, Carr J H. Adaptive motor patterns following acute brain lesions.  Eur J Neurol. 1996;  (S 3) 29
• 114 Singer B J, Dunne J W, Singer K P et al.. Velocity dependent plantarflexor resistive torque in patients with acquired brain injury.  Clin Biomech. 2003;  18 157-165
• 115 Sinkjaer T , Magnussen I . Passive, intrinsic and reflex-mediated stiffness in the ankle extensors of hemiparetic patients.  Brain. 1994;  117 355-363
• 116 Smith G V, Silver K H C, Goldberg A P et al.. “Task-oriented”” exercise improves hamstring strength and spastic reflexes in chronic stroke patients.  Stroke. 1999;  30 2112-2118
• 117 Smith P , Galea M , Woodward M  et al.. Physical activity by elderly patients undergoing inpatient rehabilitation is low: an observational study.  Aust J Physiother. 2008;  54 209-213
• 118 Tang A , Rymer W Z. Abnormal force-EMG relations in paretic limbs of hemiparetic human subjects.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 19814;  44 690-698
• 119 Taub E . Somatosensory deafferentation research with monkeys: implications for rehabilitation medicine. In: Ince L P Behavioral Psychology in Rehabilitation Medicine: Clinical Applications. Williams and Wilkins; Baltimore MD; 1980: 371-401
• 120 Teixeira-Salmela L F, Olney S J, Nadeau S  et al.. Muscle strengthening and physical conditioning to reduce impairment and disability in chronic stroke survivors.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;  80 1211-1218
• 121 Thilmann A F, Fellows S J, Garms E . The mechanism of spastic muscle hypertonus: variation in reflex gain over time course of spasticity.  Brain. 1991;  114 233-244
• 122 Thilmann A F, Fellows S J, Ross H F. Biomechanical changes at the ankle joint after stroke.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1991;  54 134-139
• 123 Thilmann A F, Burke D J, Rymer W Z. Preface. In: Thilmann A F, Burke D J, Rymer W Z Spasticity: Mechanisms and Management. Springer-Verlag; Berlin; 1993
• 124 Toffola E D, Sparpaglione D , Pistorio A  et al.. Myolectric manifestations of muscle changes in stroke patients.  Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;  82 661-665
• 125 Tsuji I , Nakamura R . The altered time course of tension development during the initiation of fast movement in hemiplegic patients.  Tohoku J Exp Med. 1987;  151 137-143
• 126 Visser S L, Oosterhoff E , Hermans H J et al.. Single twitch contraction curve in patients with spastic hemiparesis in relation to EMG findings.  Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1985;  25 63-71
• 127 Walshe F M R. Contributions of John Hughlings Jackson to neurology.  Arch Neurol. 1961;  5 119-131
• 128 Whitehead N P, Weerakkody N S, Gregory J E et al.. Changes in passive tension of muscle in humans and animals after eccentric exercise.  J Physiol. 2001;  533 593-604
• 129 Williams P E, Goldspink G . Changes in sarcomere length and physiological properties in immobilized muscle.  J Anat. 1978;  127 459-468
• 130 Witzmann F A, Kim D H, Fitts R H. Hindlimb immobilization: length-tension and contractile properties of skeletal muscle.  J Appl Physiol. 1982;  53 335-345
• 131 Young J L, Mayer R F. Physiological alterations of motor units in hemiplegia.  J Neurol Sci. 1982;  54 401-412