Neuropsychiatric Disturbances Associated with Traumatic Brain Injury: A Practical Approach to Evaluation and Management

Vani Rao; Vassilis Koliatsos; Faizi Ahmed; Constantine Lyketsos; Kathleen Kortte

doi:10.1055/s-0035-1544241

Seminars in Neurology, Inhaltsverzeichnis

Semin Neurol 2015; 35(01): 064-082
DOI: 10.1055/s-0035-1544241

Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.

Neuropsychiatric Disturbances Associated with Traumatic Brain Injury: A Practical Approach to Evaluation and Management

Vani Rao

¹Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland

,

Vassilis Koliatsos

¹Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland

²Departments of Pathology and Neurology, Division of Neuropathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland

,

Faizi Ahmed

¹Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland

,

Constantine Lyketsos

¹Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland

,

Kathleen Kortte

³Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Division of Rehabilitation Psychology and Neuropsychology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland

› Institutsangaben

Abstract

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes a wide variety of neuropsychiatric disturbances associated with great functional impairments and low quality of life. These disturbances include disorders of mood, behavior, and cognition, and changes in personality. The diagnosis of specific neuropsychiatric disturbances can be difficult because there is significant symptom overlap. Systematic clinical evaluations are necessary to make the diagnosis and formulate a treatment plan that often requires a multipronged approach. Management of TBI-associated neuropsychiatric disorders should always include nonpharmacological interventions, including education, family involvement, supportive and behavioral psychotherapies, and cognitive rehabilitation. Pharmacological treatments include antidepressants, anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, dopaminergic agents, and cholinesterase inhibitors. However, evidence-based treatments are extremely limited, and management relies on clinical empiricism and resemblance of TBI neuropsychiatric symptom profiles with those of idiopathic psychiatric disorders. Although the understanding of TBI-associated neuropsychiatric disorders has improved in the last decade, further research is needed including prospective, longitudinal studies to explore biomarkers that will assist with management and prognosis as well as randomized-controlled studies to validate pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatments. The current review summarizes the available literature in support of a structured, systematic evaluation approach and treatment options as well as recommendations for further research directions.

Keywords

traumatic brain injury - neuropsychiatry - postconcussion - depression - posttraumatic stress disorder - chronic traumatic encephalopathy - anxiety - mood - mania - behavior - psychosis - apathy - sleep

Volltext

Referenzen

References
1 Deb S, Lyons I, Koutzoukis C, Ali I, McCarthy G. Rate of psychiatric illness 1 year after traumatic brain injury. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156 (3) 374-378
2 McAllister TW, Flashman LA, Sparling MB, Saykin AJ. Working memory deficits after traumatic brain injury: catecholaminergic mechanisms and prospects for treatment — a review. Brain Inj 2004; 18 (4) 331-350
3 Hibbard MR, Uysal S, Kepler K, Bogdany J, Silver J. Axis I psychopathology in individuals with traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 1998; 13 (4) 24-39
4 Koponen S, Taiminen T, Portin R , et al. Axis I and II psychiatric disorders after traumatic brain injury: a 30-year follow-up study. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159 (8) 1315-1321
5 Whelan-Goodinson R, Ponsford JL, Schönberger M, Johnston L. Predictors of psychiatric disorders following traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2010; 25 (5) 320-329
6 Vassallo JL, Proctor-Weber Z, Lebowitz BK, Curtiss G, Vanderploeg RD. Psychiatric risk factors for traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2007; 21 (6) 567-573
7 Fann JR, Leonetti A, Jaffe K, Katon WJ, Cummings P, Thompson RS. Psychiatric illness and subsequent traumatic brain injury: a case control study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002; 72 (5) 615-620
8 Fujii DE, Ahmed I. Psychotic disorder caused by traumatic brain injury. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2014; 37 (1) 113-124
9 Jorge RE, Arciniegas DB. Mood disorders after TBI. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2014; 37 (1) 13-29
10 Neikrug AB, Ancoli-Israel S. Sleep disorders in the older adult - a mini-review. Gerontology 2010; 56 (2) 181-189
11 Rao V, Handel S, Vaishnavi S , et al. Psychiatric sequelae of traumatic brain injury: a case report. Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164 (5) 728-735
12 Lequerica AH, Kortte K. Therapeutic engagement: a proposed model of engagement in medical rehabilitation. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2010; 89 (5) 415-422
13 Meyer A. The anatomical facts and clinical varieties of traumatic insanity. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2000; 12 (3) 407-410
14 Osborn AJ, Mathias JL, Fairweather-Schmidt AK. Depression following adult, non-penetrating traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis examining methodological variables and sample characteristics. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2014; 47C: 1-15
15 Jorge RE, Robinson RG, Arndt SV, Starkstein SE, Forrester AW, Geisler F. Depression following traumatic brain injury: a 1 year longitudinal study. J Affect Disord 1993; 27 (4) 233-243
16 Fann JR, Burington B, Leonetti A, Jaffe K, Katon WJ, Thompson RS. Psychiatric illness following traumatic brain injury in an adult health maintenance organization population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004; 61 (1) 53-61
17 Koponen S, Taiminen T, Kairisto V , et al. APOE-epsilon4 predicts dementia but not other psychiatric disorders after traumatic brain injury. Neurology 2004; 63 (4) 749-750
18 Chan F, Lanctôt KL, Feinstein A , et al. The serotonin transporter polymorphisms and major depression following traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2008; 22 (6) 471-479
19 Jorge RE, Robinson RG, Moser D, Tateno A, Crespo-Facorro B, Arndt S. Major depression following traumatic brain injury. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004; 61 (1) 42-50
20 Jorge RE, Acion L, Starkstein SE, Magnotta V. Hippocampal volume and mood disorders after traumatic brain injury. Biol Psychiatry 2007; 62 (4) 332-338
21 Chen J-K, Johnston KM, Petrides M, Ptito A. Neural substrates of symptoms of depression following concussion in male athletes with persisting postconcussion symptoms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008; 65 (1) 81-89
22 Rao V, Spiro J, Degoankar M , et al. Lesion location in depression post traumatic brain injury using magnetic resonance spectroscopy: preliminary results from a pilot study. Eur J Psychiatry 2006; 20: 65-73
23 Rao V, Munro CA, Rosenberg P , et al. Neuroanatomical correlates of depression in post traumatic brain injury: preliminary results of a pilot study. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2010; 22 (2) 231-235
24 Strain J, Didehbani N, Cullum CM , et al. Depressive symptoms and white matter dysfunction in retired NFL players with concussion history. Neurology 2013; 81 (1) 25-32
25 Matthews SC, Strigo IA, Simmons AN, O'Connell RM, Reinhardt LE, Moseley SA. A multimodal imaging study in U.S. veterans of Operations Iraqi and Enduring Freedom with and without major depression after blast-related concussion. Neuroimage 2011; 54 (Suppl. 01) S69-S75
26 Rao V, Mielke M, Xu X , et al. Diffusion tensor imaging atlas-based analyses in major depression after mild traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2012; 24 (3) 309-315
27 Bédard M, Felteau M, Marshall S , et al. Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: benefits in reducing depression following a traumatic brain injury. Adv Mind Body Med 2012; 26 (1) 14-20
28 Anson K, Ponsford J. Evaluation of a coping skills group following traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2006; 20 (2) 167-178
29 Bell KR, Hoffman JM, Temkin NR , et al. The effect of telephone counselling on reducing post-traumatic symptoms after mild traumatic brain injury: a randomised trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008; 79 (11) 1275-1281
30 Fann JR, Bombardier CH, Vannoy S , et al. Telephone and in-person cognitive behavioral therapy for major depression after traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlled trial. J Neurotrauma 2014;
31 Harris JK, Godfrey HP, Partridge FM, Knight RG. Caregiver depression following traumatic brain injury (TBI): a consequence of adverse effects on family members?. Brain Inj 2001; 15 (3) 223-238
32 Leach LR, Frank RG, Bouman DE, Farmer J. Family functioning, social support and depression after traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 1994; 8 (7) 599-606
33 Warden DL, Gordon B, McAllister TW , et al; Neurobehavioral Guidelines Working Group. Guidelines for the pharmacologic treatment of neurobehavioral sequelae of traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2006; 23 (10) 1468-1501
34 Ashman TA, Cantor JB, Gordon WA , et al. A randomized controlled trial of sertraline for the treatment of depression in persons with traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009; 90 (5) 733-740
35 Fann JR, Uomoto JM, Katon WJ. Sertraline in the treatment of major depression following mild traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2000; 12 (2) 226-232
36 Lee H, Kim SW, Kim JM, Shin IS, Yang SJ, Yoon JS. Comparing effects of methylphenidate, sertraline and placebo on neuropsychiatric sequelae in patients with traumatic brain injury. Hum Psychopharmacol 2005; 20 (2) 97-104
37 Wroblewski BA, Joseph AB, Cornblatt RR. Antidepressant pharmacotherapy and the treatment of depression in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: a controlled, prospective study. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57 (12) 582-587
38 Kant R, Coffey CE, Bogyi AM. Safety and efficacy of ECT in patients with head injury: a case series. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999; 11 (1) 32-37
39 Koponen S, Taiminen T, Hiekkanen H, Tenovuo O. Axis I and II psychiatric disorders in patients with traumatic brain injury: a 12-month follow-up study. Brain Inj 2011; 25 (11) 1029-1034
40 Jorge RE, Robinson RG, Starkstein SE , et al. Secondary mania following traumatic brain injury. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150 (6) 916-921
41 Silver JM, Kramer R, Greenwald S, Weissman M. The association between head injuries and psychiatric disorders: findings from the New Haven NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. Brain Inj 2001; 15 (11) 935-945
42 Shukla S, Cook BLS, Mukherjee S, Godwin C, Miller MG. Mania following head trauma. Am J Psychiatry 1987; 144 (1) 93-96
43 Malaspina D, Goetz RRJH, Friedman JH , et al. Traumatic brain injury and schizophrenia in members of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder pedigrees. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158 (3) 440-446
44 Hale MS, Donaldson JO. Lithium carbonate in the treatment of organic brain syndrome. J Nerv Ment Dis 1982; 170 (6) 362-365
45 Pope Jr HG, McElroy SL, Satlin A, Hudson JI, Keck Jr PE, Kalish R. Head injury, bipolar disorder, and response to valproate. Compr Psychiatry 1988; 29 (1) 34-38
46 Clark AF, Davison K. Mania following head injury. A report of two cases and a review of the literature. Br J Psychiatry 1987; 150: 841-844
47 Dikmen SS, Machamer JE, Winn HR, Anderson GD, Temkin NR. Neuropsychological effects of valproate in traumatic brain injury: a randomized trial. Neurology 2000; 54 (4) 895-902
48 Bryant RA, O'Donnell ML, Creamer M, McFarlane AC, Clark CR, Silove D. The psychiatric sequelae of traumatic injury. Am J Psychiatry 2010; 167 (3) 312-320
49 Carlson KF, Nelson D, Orazem RJ, Nugent S, Cifu DX, Sayer NA. Psychiatric diagnoses among Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans screened for deployment-related traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Stress 2010; 23 (1) 17-24
50 Hoge CW, McGurk D, Thomas JL, Cox AL, Engel CC, Castro CA. Mild traumatic brain injury in U.S. soldiers returning from Iraq. N Engl J Med 2008; 358 (5) 453-463
51 Jorge RE, Robinson RG, Starkstein SE, Arndt SV. Depression and anxiety following traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993; 5 (4): 369-374
52 Gould KR, Ponsford JL, Spitz G. Association between cognitive impairments and anxiety disorders following traumatic brain injury. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2014; 36 (1) 1-14
53 Kinsella G, Moran C, Ford B, Ponsford J. Emotional disorder and its assessment within the severe head injured population. Psychol Med 1988; 18 (1) 57-63
54 Bryant RA. Disentangling mild traumatic brain injury and stress reactions. N Engl J Med 2008; 358 (5) 525-527
55 Koenigs M, Huey ED, Raymont V , et al. Focal brain damage protects against post-traumatic stress disorder in combat veterans. Nat Neurosci 2008; 11 (2) 232-237
56 Lewis L, Rosenberg SJ. Psychoanalytic psychotherapy with brain-injured adult psychiatric patients. J Nerv Ment Dis 1990; 178 (2) 69-77
57 Stein MB, McAllister TW. Exploring the convergence of posttraumatic stress disorder and mild traumatic brain injury. Am J Psychiatry 2009; 166 (7) 768-776
58 Soo C, Tate R. Psychological treatment for anxiety in people with traumatic brain injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; (3) CD005239
59 Bryant RA, Moulds M, Guthrie R, Nixon RD. Treating acute stress disorder following mild traumatic brain injury. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160 (3) 585-587
60 Chard KM, Schumm JA, McIlvain SM, Bailey GW, Parkinson RB. Exploring the efficacy of a residential treatment program incorporating cognitive processing therapy-cognitive for veterans with PTSD and traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Stress 2011; 24 (3) 347-351
61 Wolf GK, Strom TQ, Kehle SM, Eftekhari A. A preliminary examination of prolonged exposure therapy with Iraq and Afghanistan veterans with a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder and mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2012; 27 (1) 26-32
62 Capehart B, Bass D. Review: managing posttraumatic stress disorder in combat veterans with comorbid traumatic brain injury. J Rehabil Res Dev 2012; 49 (5) 789-812
63 Orlovska S, Pedersen MS, Benros ME, Mortensen PB, Agerbo E, Nordentoft M. Head injury as risk factor for psychiatric disorders: a nationwide register-based follow-up study of 113,906 persons with head injury. Am J Psychiatry 2014; 171 (4) 463-469
64 Fujii DE, Ahmed I. Risk factors in psychosis secondary to traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2001; 13 (1) 61-69
65 Fujii DE, Fujii DC. Psychotic disorder due to traumatic brain injury: analysis of case studies in the literature. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2012; 24 (3) 278-289
66 Butler PV. Diurnal variation in Cotard's syndrome (copresent with Capgras delusion) following traumatic brain injury. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2000; 34 (4) 684-687
67 Schreiber S, Klag E, Gross Y, Segman RH, Pick CG. Beneficial effect of risperidone on sleep disturbance and psychosis following traumatic brain injury. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1998; 13 (6) 273-275
68 Michals ML, Crismon ML, Roberts S, Childs A. Clozapine response and adverse effects in nine brain-injured patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993; 13 (3) 198-203
69 Kant R, Duffy JD, Pivovarnik A. Prevalence of apathy following head injury. Brain Inj 1998; 12 (1) 87-92
70 van Reekum R, Stuss DT, Ostrander L. Apathy: why care?. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005; 17 (1) 7-19
71 Rao V, McCann U, Bergey A, Han D, Brandt J, Schretlen DJ. Correlates of apathy during the first year after traumatic brain injury. Psychosomatics 2013; 54 (4) 403-404
72 Andersson S, Bergedalen AM. Cognitive correlates of apathy in traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 2002; 15 (3) 184-191
73 Takayanagi Y, Gerner G, Takayanagi M , et al. Hippocampal volume reduction correlates with apathy in traumatic brain injury, but not schizophrenia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2013; 25 (4) 292-301
74 Starkstein SE, Pahissa J. Apathy following traumatic brain injury. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2014; 37 (1) 103-112
75 Starkstein SE, Leentjens AF. The nosological position of apathy in clinical practice. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008; 79 (10) 1088-1092
76 Marin RS, Biedrzycki RC, Firinciogullari S. Reliability and validity of the apathy evaluation scale. Psychiatry Res 1991; 38 (2) 143-162
77 van Reekum R, van Reekum E. Apathy. In: Arciniegas DB, Zasler ND, Vanderploeg RD, Jaffee MS, , eds. Management of Adults with Traumatic Brain Injury. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013: 283-302
78 Gualtieri CT, Evans RW. Stimulant treatment for the neurobehavioural sequelae of traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 1988; 2 (4) 273-290
79 Lane-Brown A, Tate R. Interventions for apathy after traumatic brain injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; (2) CD006341
80 Kant R, Smith-Seemiller L. Assessment and treatment of apathy syndrome following head injury. NeuroRehabilitation 2002; 17 (4) 325-331
81 Tenovuo O. Central acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in the treatment of chronic traumatic brain injury-clinical experience in 111 patients. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2005; 29 (1) 61-67
82 Simpson G, Tate R. Suicidality in people surviving a traumatic brain injury: prevalence, risk factors and implications for clinical management. Brain Inj 2007; 21 (13-14) 1335-1351
83 Mackelprang JL, Bombardier CH, Fann JR, Temkin NR, Barber JK, Dikmen SS. Rates and predictors of suicidal ideation during the first year after traumatic brain injury. Am J Public Health 2014; 104 (7) e100-e107
84 Ouellet MC, Beaulieu-Bonneau S, Morin CM. Insomnia in patients with traumatic brain injury: frequency, characteristics, and risk factors. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2006; 21 (3) 199-212
85 Rao V, Spiro J, Vaishnavi S , et al. Prevalence and types of sleep disturbances acutely after traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2008; 22 (5) 381-386
86 Mathias JL, Alvaro PK. Prevalence of sleep disturbances, disorders, and problems following traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis. Sleep Med 2012; 13 (7) 898-905
87 Clinchot DM, Bogner J, Mysiw WJ, Fugate L, Corrigan J. Defining sleep disturbance after brain injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1998; 77 (4) 291-295
88 Sinclair KL, Ponsford JL, Taffe J, Lockley SW, Rajaratnam SM. Randomized controlled trial of light therapy for fatigue following traumatic brain injury. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2014; 28 (4) 303-313
89 Ouellet MC, Morin CM. Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia associated with traumatic brain injury: a single-case experimental design. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007; 88 (12) 1581-1592
90 DCoE Clinical Recommendation. Management of sleep disturbances following concussion/mild traumatic brain injury: guidance for primary care management in deployed and non-deployed settings. Defense Centers of Excellence website. Available at: https://dvbic.dcoe.mil/material/management-sleep-disturbances/clinical-recommendation . Accessed July 24, 2014
91 Li Pi Shan RS, Ashworth NL. Comparison of lorazepam and zopiclone for insomnia in patients with stroke and brain injury: a randomized, crossover, double-blinded trial. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2004; 83 (6) 421-427
92 Kemp S, Biswas R, Neumann V, Coughlan A. The value of melatonin for sleep disorders occurring post-head injury: a pilot RCT. Brain Inj 2004; 18 (9) 911-919
93 Inagaki T, Miyaoka T, Tsuji S, Inami Y, Nishida A, Horiguchi J. Adverse reactions to zolpidem: case reports and a review of the literature. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry 2010; 12 (6)
94 Arciniegas DB, Wortzel HS. Emotional and behavioral dyscontrol after traumatic brain injury. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2014; 37 (1) 31-53
95 Rao V, Spiro JR, Handel S, Onyike CU. Clinical correlates of personality changes associated with traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2008; 20 (1) 118-119
96 Campbell III JJ, Duffy JD, Salloway SP. Treatment strategies for patients with dysexecutive syndromes. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1994; 6 (4) 411-418
97 Sohlberg MM, Mateer CA. Training use of compensatory memory books: a three stage behavioral approach. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1989; 11 (6) 871-891
98 Epstein NB, Bishop DS. Problem-centered systems therapy of the family. In: Gurman A, Kniskern D, , eds. Handbook of Family Therapy. New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel; 1981: 444-482
99 Greendyke RM, Kanter DR, Schuster DB, Verstreate S, Wootton J. Propranolol treatment of assaultive patients with organic brain disease. A double-blind crossover, placebo-controlled study. J Nerv Ment Dis 1986; 174 (5) 290-294
100 Yudofsky SC, Williams DT, Gorman J. Propranolol in the treatment of rage and violent behavior in patients with chronic brain syndromes. Am J Psychiatry 1981; 138 (2) 218-220
101 Wortzel HS, Oster TJ, Anderson CA, Arciniegas DB. Pathological laughing and crying: epidemiology, pathophysiology and treatment. CNS Drugs 2008; 22 (7) 531-545
102 Hammond FM, Bickett AK, Norton JH, Pershad R. Effectiveness of amantadine hydrochloride in the reduction of chronic traumatic brain injury irritability and aggression. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2014; 29 (5) 391-399 J
103 Makdissi M, Cantu RC, Johnston KM, McCrory P, Meeuwisse WH. The difficult concussion patient: what is the best approach to investigation and management of persistent (>10 days) postconcussive symptoms?. Br J Sports Med 2013; 47 (5) 308-313
104 Belanger HG, Vanderploeg RD. The neuropsychological impact of sports-related concussion: a meta-analysis. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2005; 11 (4) 345-357
105 Larrabee GJ, Rohling ML. Neuropsychological differential diagnosis of mild traumatic brain injury. Behav Sci Law 2013; 31 (6) 686-701
106 Levin HS, Mattis S, Ruff RM , et al. Neurobehavioral outcome following minor head injury: a three-center study. J Neurosurg 1987; 66 (2) 234-243
107 Eisenberg MA, Meehan III WP, Mannix R. Duration and course of post-concussive symptoms. Pediatrics 2014; 133 (6) 999-1006
108 Rutherford WH, Merrett JD, McDonald JR. Symptoms at one year following concussion from minor head injuries. Injury 1979; 10 (3) 225-230
109 McLean Jr A, Temkin NR, Dikmen S, Wyler AR. The behavioral sequelae of head injury. J Clin Neuropsychol 1983; 5 (4) 361-376
110 McAllister TW, Arciniegas D. Evaluation and treatment of postconcussive symptoms. NeuroRehabilitation 2002; 17 (4) 265-283
111 Gray BG, Ichise M, Chung DG , et al. Technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT in the evaluation of patients with a remote history of traumatic brain injury: a comparison with x-ray computed tomography. J Nucl Med 1992; 33: 52-58
112 Langfitt TW, Obrist WD, Alavi A , et al. Computerized tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography in the study of brain trauma. Preliminary observations. J Neurosurg 1986; 64 (5) 760-767
113 Messé A, Caplain S, Pélégrini-Issac M , et al. Specific and evolving resting-state network alterations in post-concussion syndrome following mild traumatic brain injury. PLoS ONE 2013; 8 (6) e65470
114 Nygren-de Boussard C, Holm LW, Cancelliere C , et al. Nonsurgical interventions after mild traumatic brain injury: a systematic review. Results of the International Collaboration on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Prognosis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2014; 95 (3, Suppl): S257-S264
115 Røe C, Sveen U, Alvsåker K, Bautz-Holter E. Post-concussion symptoms after mild traumatic brain injury: influence of demographic factors and injury severity in a 1-year cohort study. Disabil Rehabil 2009; 31 (15) 1235-1243
116 Dikmen SS, Corrigan JD, Levin HS, Machamer J, Stiers W, Weisskopf MG. Cognitive outcome following traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2009; 24 (6) 430-438
117 Drake AI, Gray N, Yoder S, Pramuka M, Llewellyn M. Factors predicting return to work following mild traumatic brain injury: a discriminant analysis. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2000; 15 (5) 1103-1112
118 Ponsford J, Draper K, Schönberger M. Functional outcome 10 years after traumatic brain injury: its relationship with demographic, injury severity, and cognitive and emotional status. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2008; 14 (2) 233-242
119 Willemse-van Son AH, Ribbers GM, Hop WC, Stam HJ. Community integration following moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: a longitudinal investigation. J Rehabil Med 2009; 41 (7) 521-527
120 Sigurdardottir S, Andelic N, Wehling E , et al. Neuropsychological functioning in a national cohort of severe traumatic brain injury: demographic and acute injury-related predictors. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2014;
121 Draper K, Ponsford J. Cognitive functioning ten years following traumatic brain injury and rehabilitation. Neuropsychology 2008; 22 (5) 618-625
122 Levin H, Hanten G, Max J , et al. Symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder following traumatic brain injury in children. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2007; 28 (2) 108-118
123 Rapoport MJ, McCullagh S, Shammi P, Feinstein A. Cognitive impairment associated with major depression following mild and moderate traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005; 17 (1) 61-65
124 Rabinowitz AR, Levin HS. Cognitive sequelae of traumatic brain injury. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2014; 37 (1) 1-11
125 Cripe LI. The neuropsychological assessment and management of closed head injury: general guidelines. Cogn Rehabil 1987; 5: 18-22
126 Sherer M, Nakase-Thompson R, Yablon SA, Gontkovsky ST. Multidimensional assessment of acute confusion after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005; 86 (5) 896-904
127 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013
128 Curtiss G, Vanderploeg RD, Spencer J, Salazar AM. Patterns of verbal learning and memory in traumatic brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2001; 7 (5) 574-585
129 Kortte KB, Wegener ST. Denial of illness in medical rehabilitation populations: theory, research, and definition. Rehabil Psychol 2004; 49: 187-199
130 Prigatano GP, Klonoff PS. A clinician's rating scale for evaluating impaired self-awareness and denial of disability after brain injury. Clin Neuropsychol 1998; 12: 56-67
131 Haskins EC, Cicerone K, Dams-O'Connor K, Eberle R, Langenbahn D, Shapiro-Rosenbaum A , eds. Cognitive rehabilitation manual: translating evidence-based recommendations into practice. Reston, VA: American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine Publishing; 2012
132 Wheaton P, Mathias JL, Vink R. Impact of pharmacological treatments on cognitive and behavioral outcome in the postacute stages of adult traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2011; 31 (6) 745-757
133 Silver JM, Koumaras B, Chen M , et al. Effects of rivastigmine on cognitive function in patients with traumatic brain injury. Neurology 2006; 67 (5) 748-755
134 Gavett BE, Cantu RC, Shenton M , et al. Clinical appraisal of chronic traumatic encephalopathy: current perspectives and future directions. Curr Opin Neurol 2011; 24 (6) 525-531
135 Corsellis JAN, Bruton CJ, Freeman-Browne D. The aftermath of boxing. Psychol Med 1973; 3 (3) 270-303
136 Martland HS. Punch drunk. JAMA 1928; 91 (15) 1103-1107
137 Millspaugh JA. Dementia pugilistica. U S Nav Med Bull 1937; 35: 297-303
138 McKee AC, Cantu RC, Nowinski CJ , et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in athletes: progressive tauopathy after repetitive head injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2009; 68 (7) 709-735
139 Omalu BI, DeKosky ST, Minster RL, Kamboh MI, Hamilton RL, Wecht CH. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in a National Football League player. Neurosurgery 2005; 57 (1) 128-134 , discussion 128–134
140 Omalu BI, DeKosky ST, Hamilton RL , et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in a national football league player: part II. Neurosurgery 2006; 59 (5) 1086-1092 , discussion 1092–1093
141 Wortzel HS, Brenner LA, Arciniegas DB. Traumatic brain injury and chronic traumatic encephalopathy: a forensic neuropsychiatric perspective. Behav Sci Law 2013; 31 (6) 721-738
142 Koliatsos VE, Xu L. Neurodegeneration in cumulative sports concussions: emphasis on neurofibrillary tangles. In: Kobeissy F, , ed. Brain Neurotrauma: Molecular, Neuropsychological, and Rehabilitation Aspects. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2015
143 Guskiewicz KM, Marshall SW, Bailes J , et al. Association between recurrent concussion and late-life cognitive impairment in retired professional football players. Neurosurgery 2005; 57 (4) 719-726 , discussion 719–726
144 Lehman EJ, Hein MJ, Baron SL, Gersic CM. Neurodegenerative causes of death among retired National Football League players. Neurology 2012; 79 (19) 1970-1974
145 Barnes DE, Kaup A, Kirby KA, Byers AL, Diaz-Arrastia R, Yaffe K. Traumatic brain injury and risk of dementia in older veterans. Neurology 2014; 83 (4) 312-319
146 Vaishnavi S, Rao V, Fann JR. Neuropsychiatric problems after traumatic brain injury: unraveling the silent epidemic. Psychosomatics 2009; 50 (3) 198-205