Therapie idiopathischer Kopfschmerzen im Kindes- und Jugendalter

Zusammenfassung

Nach den Richtlinien der Evidence Based Medicine sind die spezifischen kontrollierten Studien für die Behandlung von idiopathischen Kopfschmerzen im Kindes- und Jugendalter analysiert und in Therapieempfehlungen zusammengefasst worden. Mit der höchsten Evidenz wird für die Behandlung akuter Migräneattacken oder von Kopfschmerzen vom Spannungstyp Ibuprofen empfohlen. Als Mittel der zweiten Wahl wird für alle Altersstufen Paracetamol empfohlen, ab dem 12. Lebensjahr ist für Migräneattacken auch Sumatriptan Nasenspray Mittel der zweiten Wahl (im Einzelfall kann es auch bei jüngeren Kindern eingesetzt werden). Bei Versagen der Akutmedikamente der ersten und zweiten Wahl werden als Ausweichsubstanzen der dritten Wahl Zolmitriptan als Schmelztablette, Zolmitriptan als Nasenspray, Rizatriptan, Almotriptan und Dihydroergotamin empfohlen. Für die medikamentöse Prophylaxe der Migräne werden Magnesium, Betablocker (Propranolol oder Metoprolol) und Flunarizin empfohlen. Flunarizin ist auch prophylaktisches Mittel der ersten Wahl bei migräneähnlichen Syndromen. Für andere Kopfschmerzarten liegen keine kontrollierten Studien für das Kindesalter vor. In der nicht medikamentösen Prophylaxe von Kopfschmerzen im Kindesalter werden mit höchster Evidenz Entspannungsverfahren (progressive Muskelrelaxation), Biofeedbackverfahren und kindgerechte kognitiv-verhaltensorientierte Therapieprogramme empfohlen.

Summary

According to the principles of evidence-based medicine, the controlled studies on the treatment of idiopathic headache in childhood have been analysed and compiled to treatment recommendations. For the acute treatment of migraine attacks or tension-type headache, ibuprofen is recommended with highest evidence. Drugs of second choice are acetaminophen for all ages and, for migraine attacks only, intranasal sumatriptan for the age of twelve and older, in single cases also in the age below twelve. If the acute drugs of first or second choice are not efficacious, alternative drugs of third choice are zolmitriptan as melting tablet, intranasal zolmitriptan, rizatriptan, almotriptan, and dihydroergotamine. For the prophylaxis of migraine, magnesium, betablockers (propranolol and metoprolol), and flunarizine are recommended. Flunarizine is the drug of first choice in the treatment of migraine-related disorders. No controlled studies are available for the treatment of further headache types. First line methods for the nondrug treatment of headache in childhood are relaxation therapies, biofeedback, and specific cognitive-behavioral therapeutic schedules.

Schlüsselwörter

Kindes- und Jugendalter - Migräne - Kopfschmerz vom Spannungstyp - Therapieempfehlungen

Keywords

Childhood - adolescence - migraine - tension-type headache - treatment recommendations

• Literatur

• 1 Abu-Arefeh I, Russell G. Prevalence of headache and migraine in schoolchildren. Br Med J 1994; 309: 765-769.
• 2 Abu-Arafeh I, Russell G. Cyclical vomiting syndrome in children: a population-based study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1995; 21: 454-458.
• 3 Ahonen K. et al. Nasal sumatriptan is effective in the treatment of migraine attacks in children. Neurology 2004; 62: 883-887.
• 4 Ahonen K. et al. A randomized trial of rizatriptan in migraine attacks in children. Neurology 2006; 67: 1135-1140.
• 5 Alhashimi D. et al. Antiemetics for reducing vomiting related to acute gastroenteritis in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 CD005506.
• 6 Allmendinger A, Ebinger F. Diagnostik bei Kopfschmerzen im Kindesalter. Kinder- und Jugendarzt 2007; 38: 373-379.
• 7 Ambrosini PJ. A review of pharmacotherapy of major depression in children and adolescents. Psychiatr Serv 2000; 51: 627-633.
• 8 Amdorfer R, Allen K. Extending the efficacy of a thermal biofeedback treatment package to the management of tension-type headache in children. Headache 2001; 41: 183-192.
• 9 Andersen JM. et al. Effective prophylactic therapy for cyclic vomiting syndrome in children using amitriptyline or cyproheptadine. Pediatrics 1997; 100: 977-981.
• 10 Andrasik F. et al. Pharmacological treatment compared to behavioural treatment for juvenile tension- type headache: results at two-year follow-up. Neurol Sci 2007; 28 (Suppl. 02) 235-238.
• 11 Anttila P. Tension-type headache in childhood and adolescence. Lancet Neurol 2006; 5: 268-274.
• 12 Anttila P. et al. Long-term trends in the incidence of headache in Finnish school children. Pediatrics 2006; 117: 1197-1201.
• 13 Antonaci F, Sjaastad O. Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania (CPH): a review of clinical manifestations. Headache 1989; 29: 648-656.
• 14 Antonarakis ES, Hain RD. Nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy: drug management in theory and in practice. Arch Dis Child 2004; 89: 877-880.
• 15 Apostol G. et al. Divalproex extended-release in adolescent migraine prophylaxis: Results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Headache. 2008 48 (Epub doi: 10.1111/j. 1526–4610.2008.01081.x).
• 16 Arruda MA. et al. Decreasing the minimal duration of the attack to 1 hour: is this sufficient to increase the sensitiviy of the ICHD-II diagnostic criteria for migraine in childhood?. J Headache Pain 2004; 5: 131-136.
• 17 Ashrafi MR. et al. Sodium valproate versus propranolol in pediatric migraine prophylaxis. Europ J Paediatr Neurol 2005; 9: 333-338.
• 18 Balottin U, Termine C. Recommendations for the management of migraine in paediatric patients. Exp Op Pharmacother 2007; 8: 731-744.
• 19 Barea LM. et al. An epidemiologic study on headache among children and adolescents of southern Brazil. Cephalalgia 1996; 16: 545-549.
• 20 Battistella PA. et al. A placebo-controlled crossover trial of nimodipine in pediatric migraine. Headache 1990; 30: 264-268.
• 21 Battistella PA. et al. A placebo-controlled crossover trial using trazodone in pediatric migraine. Headache 1993; 33: 36-39.
• 22 Baumann RJ. Behavioral treatment of migraine in children and adolescents. Pediatr Drugs 2002; 4: 555-561.
• 23 Benson JM. et al. Sumatriptan in the treatment of cyclic vomiting. Ann Pharmacother 1995; 29: 997-999.
• 24 Bigal ME. et al. Primary chronic daily headache and its subtypes in adolescents and adults. Neurology 2004; 63: 843-847.
• 25 Bille B. Migraine in childhood and its prognosis. Cephalalgia 1981; 1: 71-75.
• 26 Bille B. A 40-year follow-up of school children with migraine. Cephalalgia 1997; 17: 488-491.
• 27 Blättler T. et al. Symptomatic SUNCT in an eleven- year-old girl. Neurology 2006; 60: 2012-2013.
• 28 Boccia G. et al. Functional gastrointestinal disorders in migrainous children: efficacy of flunarizine. Cephalalgia 2006; 26: 1214-1219.
• 29 Bolton CM. et al. Prophylaxis of postoperative vomiting in children undergoing tonsillectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br JAnaesth 2006; 97: 593-604.
• 30 Borzy JC, Koch TK, Schimschock JR. Effectiveness of topiramate in the treatment of pediatric chronic daily headache. Pediatr Neurol 2005; 33: 314-316.
• 31 Bourgeois M. et al. Alternating hemiplegia of childhood. J Pediatr 1993; 122: 673-679.
• 32 Bronfort G. et al. Non-invasive physical treatments for chronic/recurrent headache. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2004 Issue 3. Art. No. CD001878. DOI: 10.1002/ 14651858.CD001878.pub2.
• 33 Bruni O, Galli F, Guidetti V. Sleep hygiene and migraine in children and adolescents. Cephalalgia 1999; 19 (Suppl. 25) 57-59.
• 34 Bussone G. et al. Biofeedback-assisted relaxation training for young adolescents with tension-type headache: a controlled study. Cephalalgia 1998; 18: 463-467.
• 35 Campistol J. et al. Topiramate in the prophylactic treatment of migraine in children. J Child Neurol 2005; 20: 251-253.
• 36 Caruso JM. et al. The efficacy of divalproex sodium in the prophylactic treatment of children with migraine. Headache 2000; 40: 672-676.
• 37 Casaer P. Flunarizine in alternating hemiplegia in childhood. An international study in 12 children. Neuropediatrics 1987; 18: 191-195.
• 38 Childs AM. et al. Neurovascular compression of the trigeminal and glossopharyngeal nerve: three case reports. Arch Dis Child 2000; 82: 311-315.
• 39 Congdon PJ, Forsythe WI. Migraine in childhood: a study of 300 children. Dev Med Child Neurol 1979; 21: 209-216.
• 40 Curless RG. Cluster headaches in childhood. J Pediatrics 1982; 101: 393-395.
• 41 Damen L. et al. Prophylactic treatment of migraine in children. Part 2. A systematic review of pharmacological trials. Cephalalgia 2006; 26: 497-505.
• 42 Damen L. et al. Prophylactic treatment of migraine in children. Part 1. A systematic review of nonpharmacological trials. Cephalalgia 2006; 26: 373-383.
• 43 D’Andrea G, Granella F. SUNCT syndrome: the first case in childhood. Cephalalgia 2001; 21: 701-702.
• 44 De Almeida DB. et al. Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania in early childhood: a case report. Cephalalgia 2004; 24: 608-609.
• 45 Denecke H, Kröner-Herwig B. Kopfschmerz- Therapie mit Kindern und Jugendlichen. Ein Trainingsprogramm. Hogrefe: Göttingen; 2000
• 46 Dignan F. et al. The prognosis of cyclical vomiting syndrome. Arch Dis Child 2001; 84: 55-57.
• 47 Dyb G. et al. Analgesic overuse among adolescents with headache: the Head-HUNT-Youth Study. Neurology 2006; 66: 198-201.
• 48 Ebinger F. Der kindliche Kopfschmerz. Besserung in der Pubertät oder ein Erwachsenenschicksal?. Pädiatr Praxis 2003; 64: 23-30.
• 49 Ebinger F. Kopfschmerzen bei Kindern und Jugendlichen – ein Update. Neuropädiatrie in Klinik und Praxis 2005; 4: 136-144.
• 50 Eccleston C. et al. Systematic review of randomized controlled trials of psychological therapy for chronic pain in children and adolescents, with a subset meta-analysis of pain relief. Pain 2002; 99: 157-165.
• 51 Egger J. et al. Is migraine food allergy? A doubleblind controlled trial of oligoantigenic diet treatment. Lancet 1983; ii: 865-869.
• 52 Ekbom K. Cluster headache: a clinical and pathophysiological review. In: Olesen J, Goadsby PJ. (eds). Cluster headache and related conditions. Oxford: University Press; 1999: 13-22.
• 53 Ertekin V. et al. Prevalence of cyclic vomiting syndrome in a sample of Turkish school children in an urban area. J Clin Gastroenterol 2006; 40: 896-898.
• 54 Evers S. et al. Event-related potentials (P300) in childhood and adolescence primary headache. J Child Neurol 1998; 13: 322-326.
• 55 Evers S. et al. Age of onset in cluster headache: the clinical spectrum. Cephalalgia 2002; 22: 160-162.
• 56 Evers S. et al. Therapie seltener idiopathischer Kopfschmerzerkrankungen. Nervenheilkunde 2005; 24: 217-226.
• 57 Evers S. et al. Treatment of childhood migraine attacks with oral zolmitriptan and ibuprofen. Neurology 2006; 67: 497-499.
• 58 Evers S. Controlled trials in pediatric migraine: crossover versus parallel group. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2007; 11: 241-244.
• 59 Fendrich K. et al. Headache prevalence among adolescents – the German DMKG headache study. Cephalalgia 2007; 27: 347-354.
• 60 Ferriere G. Flunarizine in the prophylactic treatment of paediatric migraine. Cephalalgia 1985; 5 (Suppl. 03) 176-177.
• 61 Fichtel A, Larsson B. Does relaxation treatment have differential effects on migraine and tensiontype headache in adolescents?. Headache 2001; 41: 290-296.
• 62 Fichtel Larsson B. Relaxation treatment administered by school nurses to adolescents with recurrent headache. Headache 2004; 44: 545-554.
• 63 Fitzgerald DA. Aspirin and Reye syndrome. Pediatr Drugs 2007; 9: 205-206.
• 64 Fitzpatrick E. et al. Outcome for children with cyclical vomiting syndrome. Arch Dis Child 2007; 92: 1001-1004.
• 65 Forsythe WI, Gillies D, Sills MA. Propranolol (Inderal) in the treatment of childhood migraine. Dev Med Child Neurol 1984; 26: 737-741.
• 66 Fragoso YD, Machado PC. Hemicrania continua with onset at an early age. Headache 1998; 38: 792-793.
• 67 Frankenberg S. Ernährungsverhaltensberatung bei Kopfschmerzen (Abstrakt). Schmerz 1999; 13 Suppl 1: 38.
• 68 Freedman SB, Fuchs S. Antiemetic therapy in pediatric emergency departments. Pediatr Emerg Care 2004; 20: 625-633.
• 69 Fusco C, Pisani F, Faienza C. Idiopathic stabbing headache: clinical characteristics of children and adolescents. Brain Devel 2003; 25: 237-240.
• 70 Gerber WD, Müller Gerber-von. Verhaltensmedizinische Aspekte chronischer Kopfschmerzen im Kindes- und Jugendalter. Kindh Entwickl 2002; 11: 140-151.
• 71 Gillies D. et al. Pizotifen (Sandomigran) in childhood migraine. Eur Neurol 1986; 25: 32-35.
• 72 Gladstein J. et al. Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania in a child. Headache 1994; 34: 519-520.
• 73 Gokhale R. et al. Use of barbiturate in the treatment of cyclic vomiting during childhood. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1997; 25: 64-67.
• 74 Goldstein M, Chen TC. The epidemiology of disabling headache. Adv Neurol 1982; 33: 377-390.
• 75 Gottschling S. et al. Laser acupuncture in children with headache: A double-blind, randomized, bicenter, placebo-controlled trial. Pain. 2007 Nov 15; (Epubl ahead of print).
• 76 Grazzi L. et al. Pharmacological behavioural treatment for children and adolescents with tension-type headache. Neurol Sci 2004; 25: S270-271.
• 77 Grazzi L. et al. Magnesium as a treatment for pediatric tension-type headache: a clinical replication series. Neurol Sci 2005; 25: 338-341.
• 78 Grazzi L. et al. Magnesium as a preventive treatment for paediatric episodic tension-type headache: results at 1-year follow-up. Neurol Sci 2007; 28: 148-150.
• 79 Guidetti V. et al. Flunarizine and migraine in childhood. An evaluation of endocrine function. Cephalalgia 1987; 7: 263-266.
• 80 Haag G. et al. Prophylaxe und Therapie des medikamenteninduzierten Dauerkopfschmerzes. Therapieempfehlungen der Deutschen Migräne- und Kopfschmerzgesellschaft. Nervenheilkunde 1999; 18: 143-146.
• 81 Haghighat M. et al. Cyclic vomiting syndrome in children: experience with 181 cases from southern Iran. World J Gastroenterol 2007; 13: 1833-1836.
• 82 Hämäläinen ML. et al. Ibuprofen or acetaminophen for the acute treatment of migraine in children. Neurology 1997; 48: 103-107.
• 83 Hämäläinen ML. et al. Sumatriptan for migraine attacks in children: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Neurology 1997; 48: 1100-1103.
• 84 Hämäläinen ML. et al. Oral dihydroergotamine for therapy-resistant migraine attacks in children. Pediatr Neurol 1997; 16: 114-117.
• 85 Harel Z. et al. Supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the management of recurrent migraines in adolescents. J Adolesc Health 2002; 31: 154-161.
• 86 Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society.. The international classification of headache disorders, 2nd edition. Cephalalgia 2004; 24 (Suppl. 01) 1-160.
• 87 Hering-Hanit R. et al. Successful withdrawal from analgesic abuse in a group of youngsters with chronic daily headache. J Child Neurol 2001; 16: 448-449.
• 88 Hering-Hanit R, Gadoth N. Caffeine-induced headache in children and adolescents. Cephalalgia 2003; 23: 332-335.
• 89 Hermann C, Kim M, Blanchard EB. Behavioral and prophylactic pharmacological intervention studies of pediatric migraine: an exploratory meta- analysis. Pain 1995; 60: 239-256.
• 90 Hershey AD. et al. Effectiveness of amitriptyline in the prophylactic management of childhood headaches. Headache 2000; 40: 539-549.
• 91 Hershey AD. et al. Effectiveness of nasal Sumatriptan in 5- to 12-year-old children. Headache 2001; 41: 693-697.
• 92 Hershey AD. et al. Effectiveness of topiramate in the prevention of childhood headaches. Headache 2002; 42: 810-818.
• 93 Hershey AD. et al. Coenzyme Q10 deficiency and response to supplementation in pediatric and adolescent migraine. Headache 2007; 47: 73-80.
• 94 Jiang W. et al. Topiramate: a new agent for patients with alternating hemiplegia of childhood. Neuropediatrics 2006; 37: 229-233.
• 95 Kandt RS, Daniel FL. Glossopharyngeal neuralgia in a child. A diagnostic and therapeutic dilemma. Arch Neurol 1986; 43: 301-302.
• 96 Karch D. et al. Manualmedizinische Behandlung des KISS-Syndroms und der Atlastherapie nach Arlen. Stellungnahme der Gesellschaft für Neuropädiatrie e. V.: Kommission zu Behandlungsverfahren bei Entwicklungsstörungen und zerebralen Bewegungsstörungen. Manuelle Medizin 2005; 43: 100-105.
• 97 Klassen BD, Dooley JM. Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania- like headache in a child: response to a headache diary. Headache 2000; 40: 853-855.
• 98 Korsgard AG. The tolerability, safety and efficacy of oral sumatriptan 50 mg and 100 mg for the acute treatment of migraine in adolescents [abstract]. Cephalalgia 1995; 15 Suppl 16: 99.
• 99 Kossoff EH, Mankad DN. Medication-overuse headache in children: is initial preventive therapy necessary?. J Child Neurol 2006; 21: 45-48.
• 100 Kothare SV. Efficacy of flunarizine in the prophylaxis of cyclical vomiting syndrome and abdominal migraine. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2005; 9: 23-26.
• 101 Kovac AL. Management of postoperative nausea and vomiting in children. Paediatr Drugs 2007; 9: 47-69.
• 102 Kröner-Herwig B, Mohn U, Pothmann R. Comparison of biofeedback and relaxation in the treatment of pediatric headache and the influence of parent involvement on outcome. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 1998; 23: 143-157.
• 103 Kröner-Herwig B, Heinrich M, Morris L. Headache in German children and adolescents: a population- based epidemiological study. Cephalalgia 2007; 27: 519-527.
• 104 Kruse M, Ebinger F. Alternierende Hemiplegie im Kindesalter – ein Update. Neuropädiatrie in Klinik und Praxis 2007; 6: 64-69.
• 105 Krymchantowski AV. et al. Low-dose flunarizine for the prevention of migraine in children. Headache Q 2000; 11: 119-121.
• 106 Kudrow L. Cluster headache: Mechanism and management. Oxford: University Press; 1980
• 107 Kudrow DB, Kudrow L. Successful aspirin prophylaxis in a child with chronic paroxysmal hemicrania. Headache 1989; 29: 280-281.
• 108 Lakshmi CV. et al. Topiramate in the prophylaxis of pediatric migraine: A double-blind placebocontrolled trial. J Child Neurol 2007; 22: 829-835.
• 109 Lampl C. Childhood-onset cluster headache. Pediatr Neurol 2002; 27: 138-140.
• 110 Larsson B. et al. Relaxation treatment of adolescent headache sufferers: Results from a schoolbased replication series. Headache 2005; 45: 692-704.
• 111 Lee LH, Olness KN. Clinical and demographic characteristics of migraine in urban children. Headache 1997; 37: 269-276.
• 112 Leung AK, Robson WL. Acute gastroenteritis in children: role of anti-emetic medication for gastroenteritis- related vomiting. Paediatr Drugs 2007; 9: 175-184.
• 113 Lewis DW. et al. Children’s ibuprofen suspension for the acute treatment of pediatric migraine headache. Headache 2002; 42: 780-786.
• 114 Lewis D. et al. Practice parameter: pharmacological treatment of migraine headache in children and adolescents. Report of the American Academy of Neurology Quality Standards Subcommittee and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Neurology 2004; 63: 2215-224.
• 115 Lewis D. et al. Prophylactic treatment of pediatric migraine. Headache 2004; 44: 230-237.
• 116 Lewis DW. et al. The “other“ primary headaches in children and adolescents. Pediatr Neurol 2005; 33: 303-313.
• 117 Lewis DW, Paradiso E. A double-blind, dose comparison study of topiramate for prophylaxis of basilar-type migraine in children: A pilot study. Headache 2007; 47: 1409-1417.
• 118 Lewis DW. et al. Adolescent Migraine Steering Committee. Efficacy of zolmitriptan nasal spray in adolescent migraine. Pediatrics 2007; 120: 390-6.
• 119 Li BU. et al. Is cyclic vomiting syndrome related to migraine?. J Pediatr 1999; 134: 567-572.
• 120 Linder SL. Treatment of childhood headache with dihydroergotamine mesylate. Headache 1994; 34: 578-580.
• 121 Linder SL. Subcutaneous sumatriptan in the clinical setting: the first 50 consecutive patients with acute migraine in a pediatric neurology office practice. Headache 1996; 36: 419-422.
• 122 Linder SL. et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo- controlled study of oral almotriptan 6.25 mg, 12.5 mg, and 25 mg in the acute treatment of migraine in adolescents. Ann Neurol 2006; 60: S152.
• 123 Longo G. et al. Trattamento della cefalea essenziale in eta evolutiva con L-5HTP (Studio in doppio- cieco “cross over” verso placebo). Pediatr Med Chir 1984; 6: 241-245.
• 124 Lopes PG. et al. Trigeminal neuralgia in children: two case reports. Pediatr Neurol 2002; 26: 309-10.
• 125 Ludvigsson J. Propranolol used in prophylaxis of migraine in children. Acta Neurol Scand 1974; 50: 109-115.
• 126 Luka-Krausgrill U. Kognitive Verhaltenstherapie bei Kopfschmerzen im Kindes- und Jugendalter. In: Hautzinger M. (Hrsg). Kognitive Verhaltenstherapie bei psychischen Störungen. Weinheim: Psychologische Verlagsunion; 1998: 477-516.
• 127 Lütschg J, Vassella F. Behandlung der kindlichen Migräne mit Flunarizin bzw. Propranolol. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 1990; 120: 1731-1736.
• 128 MacDonald JT. Treatment of juvenile migraine with subcutaneous sumatriptan. Headache 1994; 34: 581-582.
• 129 Mack KJ. What incites new daily persistent headache in children?. Pediatr Neurol 2004; 31: 122-125.
• 130 Marshall PC, Rosman NP. Symptomatic trigeminal neuralgia in a 5-year-old child. Pediatrics 1977; 60: 331-333.
• 131 Mason WE. et al. Trigeminal neuralgia and its treatment in a 13-month-old child: a review and case report. J Craniomandib Disord 1991; 5: 213-6.
• 132 Mauskop A. et al. Zolmitriptan is effective for the treatment of persistent and recurrent migraine headache. Curr Med Res Opin 1999; 15: 282-289.
• 133 May A. et al. Therapie und Prophylaxe von Clusterkopfschmerzen und anderen trigemino-autonomen Kopfschmerzen. Nervenheilkunde 2004; 23: 478-490.
• 134 Maytal J. et al. Childhood onset cluster headache. Headache 1992; 32: 275-279.
• 135 Maytal J. et al. Pediatric migraine and the International Headache Society (IHS) criteria. Neurology 1997; 48: 602-607.
• 136 McNabb S, Whitehouse W. Cluster headache-like disorder in childhood. Arch Dis Child 1999; 81: 511-512.
• 137 Melchart D. et al. Acupuncture for recurrent headaches: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Cephalalgia 1999; 19: 779-786.
• 138 Metsähonkala L. et al. Social Environment and headache on 8- to 9-year-old children: a followup study. Headache 1998; 38: 222-228.
• 139 Miller GS. Efficacy and safety of levetiracetamin pediatric migraine. Headache 2004; 44: 238-243.
• 140 Millichap JG, Yee MM. The diet factor in pediatric and adolescent migraine. Pediatr Neurol 2003; 28: 9-15.
• 141 Monastero R. et al. Prognosis of migraine headache in adolescents: a 10-year follow-up study. Neurology 2006; 76: 1353-1356.
• 142 Mortimer MJ. et al. Epidemiology of headache and childhood migraine in an urban general practice using Ad hoc, Vahlquist and IHS criteria. Dev Med Child Neurol 1992; 34: 516-523.
• 143 Mortimer MJ. et al. Clinical epidemiology of childhood abdominal migraine in an urban general practice. Dev Med Child Neurol 1993; 35: 243-248.
• 144 Noronha MJ. Double blind randomised crossover trial of timolol in migraine prophylaxis of children. Cephalalgia 1985; 5 (Suppl. 03) 174-175.
• 145 Oelkers-Ax R. et al. Butterbur root extract and music therapy in the prevetion of childhood migraine: An explorative study. Europ J Pain 2008; 12: 301-313.
• 146 Olness K. et al. Comparison of self-hypnosis and propranolol in the treatment of juvenile classic migraine. Pediatrics 1987; 79: 593-597.
• 147 Pakalnis A. et al. Pediatric migraine prophylaxis with divalproex. J ChildNeurol 2001; 16: 731-734.
• 148 Pakalnis A, Kring D. Zonisamide prophylaxis in refractory pediatric headache. Headache 2006; 46: 804-807.
• 149 Pakalnis A, Kring D, Meier L. Levetiracetam prophylaxis in pediatric migraine – an open-label study. Headache 2007; 47: 427-430.
• 150 Pascual J, Berciano J. Clinical experience with headaches in preadolescent children. Headache 1995; 35: 551-553.
• 151 Pfefferbaum B, Hagberg CA. Pharmacologial management of pain in children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993; 32: 235-242.
• 152 Pintov S. et al. Acupuncture and the opioid system: implications in management of migraine. Pediatr Neurol 1997; 17: 129-133.
• 153 Pothmann R. Calcium-antagonist flunarizine vs. low-dose acetylsalicylic acid in childhood migraine a double-blind study. Cephalalgia 1987; 7 Suppl 6 385-386.
• 154 Pothmann R. Transkutane elektrische Nervenstimulation zur Schmerztherapie. Kinderarzt 1990; 21: 706-712.
• 155 Pothmann R. Migräne bei Kindern. In: Ensink FBM, Soyka D. (Hrsg). Migräne. Aktuelle Aspekte eines altbekannten Leidens. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1994: 477-500.
• 156 Pothmann R. Kopfschmerzen im Kindesalter. Stuttagrt: Hippokrates; 1999
• 157 Pothmann R, Winter K. Migraine prophylaxis with DHE: a double blind placebo-controlled study. Cephalalgia 1989; 9 (Suppl. 10) 427-428.
• 158 Pothmann R. et al. Migränetagebuch für Kinder. München: Arcis-Verlag; 1991
• 159 Pothmann R, Lobisch M. Akutbehandlung des episodischen kindlichen Spannungskopfschmerzes mit Flupirtin und Paracetamol. Schmerz 2000; 14: 1-4.
• 160 Pothmann R, Danesch U. Migraine prevention in children and adolescents: Results of an open study with a spezial butterbur root extract. Headache 2005; 45: 196-203.
• 161 Pothmann R. et al. Ernährungs-medizinische Therapie bei Kindern mit Kopfschmerzen – Ein randomisierter Vergleich. Neuropädiatrie in Klinik und Praxis 2005; 4: 86-91.
• 162 Powers SW. et al. A pilot study of one-session biofeedback training in pediatric headache. Neurology 2001; 56: 133.
• 163 Raieli V. et al. Trigeminal neuralgia and cerebellopontine- angle lipoma in a child. Headache 2001; 41: 720-722.
• 164 Ramanathan M. et al. Reactivation of trigeminal neuralgia following distraction osteogenesis in an 8-year-old child: report of a unique case. J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent 2007; 25: 49-51.
• 165 Reiter PD, Nickisch J, Merritt G. Efficacy and tolerability of intravenous valproic acid in acute adolescent migraine. Headache 2005; 45: 899-903.
• 166 Resnick DK. et al. Microvascular decompression for pediatric onset trigeminal neuralgia. Neurosurgery 1998; 43: 804-807.
• 167 Roski R. et al. Atypical trigeminal neuralgia in a 6-year-old boy. Case report. J Neurosurg 1982; 56: 424-425.
• 168 Rothner A. et al. Efficacy and safety of naratriptan tablets in adolescent migraine. J Neurol Sci 1997; 150: S106.
• 169 Rothner AD. et al. Zolmitriptan oral tablet in migraine treatment: high placebo responses in adolescents. Headache 2006; 46: 101-109.
• 170 Russell G, Abu-Arafeh I. Paroxysmal vertigo in children – an epidemiological study. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 1999; 49 (Suppl. 01) S105-107.
• 171 Salfield SAW. et al. Controlled study of exclusion of dietary vasoactive amines in migraine. Arch Dis Child 1987; 62: 458-460.
• 172 Salmon MA, Walters DD. Pizotifen in the prophylaxis of cyclical vomiting. Lancet 1985; i: 1036-1037.
• 173 Santucci M. et al. L-5-Hydroxytryptophan versus placebo in childhood migraine prophylaxis: a double-blind crossover study. Cephalalgia 1986; 6: 155-157.
• 174 Sasaki M. et al. Longterm effect of flunarizine on patients with alternating hemiplegia of childhood in Japan. Bran Dev 2001; 23: 303-305.
• 175 Schlarb AA, Hautzinger M. Nichtmedikamentöse Therapie bei Kindern mit Migräne oder Span- nungskopfschmerz. Kinder- und Jugendarzt 2007; 38: 435-439.
• 176 Schrör K. Aspirin and Reye syndrome: a review of evidence. Paediatr Drugs 2007; 9: 195-204.
• 177 Seemann H. et al. Chronifizierungsprävention primärer Kopfschmerzen bei Kindern und Jugendlichen. Kindh Entwickl 2002; 11: 185-197.
• 178 Sekhara T. et al. Pediatric SUNCT syndrome. Pediatr Neurol 2005; 33: 206-207.
• 179 Serdaroglu G. et al. Sodium valproate prophylaxis in childhood migraine. Headache 2002; 42: 819-822.
• 180 Shabbir N, McAbee G. Adolescent chronic paroxysmal hemicrania responsive to verapamil monotherapy. Headache 1994; 34: 209-210.
• 181 Sillanpää M. Clonidine prophylaxis of childhood migraine and other vascular headaches. Headache 1977; 17: 28-31.
• 182 Sillanpää M, Koponen M. Papaverine in the prophylaxis of migraine and other vascular headaches in children. Acta Paediatr Scand 1978; 67: 209-212.
• 183 Sillanpää M. Changes in the prevalence of migraine and other headache during the first seven school years. Headache 1983; 23: 15-19.
• 184 Sillanpää M, Piekkala P, Kero P. Prevalence of headache at preschool age in an unselected child population. Cephalalgia 1991; 11: 239-242.
• 185 Sillanpää M, Anttila P. Increasing prevalence of headache in 7-year-old schoolchildren. Headache 1996; 36: 466-470.
• 186 Sills M. et al. Clonidine and childhood migraine: a pilot and double-blind study. Dev Med Child Neurol 1982; 24: 837-841.
• 187 Silver K, Andermann F. Alternating hemiplegia of childhood: a study of 10 patients and results of flunarizine treatment. Neurology 1993; 43: 36-41.
• 188 Siniatchkin M. et al. Self-regulation of slow cortical potentials in children with migraine: an exploratory study. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2000; 25: 13-32.
• 189 Solomon S, Newman LC. Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania in a child?. Headache 1995; 35: 234-235.
• 190 Solomon GD. et al. Clinical efficacy and tolerability of 2.5 mg zolmitriptan for the acute treatment of migraine. The 042 Clinical Trial Study Group. Neurology 1997; 49: 1219-1225.
• 191 Solth A. et al. Successful vascular decompression in an 11-year-old patient with trigeminal neuralgia. Childs Nerv Syst 2008; 24: 763-766.
• 192 Sorge F. et al. Amitriptyline as a prophylactic for migraine in children. Acta Neurol (Napoli) 1982; 4: 362-367.
• 193 Sorge F, Marano E. Flunarizine v. placebo in childhood migraine: a double-blind study. Cephalalgia 1985; 5 (Suppl. 02) 145-148.
• 194 Sorge F. et al. Flunarizine in prophylaxis of childhood migraine: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross over study. Cephalalgia 1988; 8: 1-6.
• 195 Soriani S. et al. Juvenile idiopathic stabbing headache. Headache 1996; 36: 565-567.
• 196 Symon DN, Russell G. Double blind placebo controlled trial of pizotifen syrup on the treatment of abdominal migraine. Arch Dis Child 1995; 72: 48-50.
• 197 Symon DNK. Twelve cases of analgesic headache. Arch Dis Child 1998; 78: 555-556.
• 198 Talvik I. et al. Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania in a 3-year, 10-month-old female. Pediatr Neurol 2006; 34: 225-227.
• 199 Tan V. et al. Abdominal migraine and treatment with intravenous valproic Acid. Psychosomatics 2006; 47: 353-355.
• 200 Tepper SJ. et al. A long-term study to maximise migraine relief with zolmitriptan. Curr Med Res Opin 1999; 15: 254-271.
• 201 Tonini M. et al. Clinical implications of enteric and central D2 receptor blockade by antidopaminergic gastrointestinal prokinetics. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004; 19: 379-390.
• 202 Trautmann E. et al. Psychological treatment of recurrent headache in children and adolescents – a meta-analysis. Cephalalgia 2006; 26: 1411-26.
• 203 Überall M, Wenzel D. Intranasal sumatriptan for the acute treatment of migraine in children. Neurology 1999; 52: 1507-1510.
• 204 Van Calcar SC. et al. L-carnitine administration reduces number of episodes in cyclic vomiting syndrome. Clin Pediatr 2002; 41: 171-174.
• 205 Vanderhoof J. et al. Treatment of cyclic vomiting in childhood with erythromycin. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1993; 17: 387-391.
• 206 Vanderhoof JA. et al. Treatment of cyclic vomiting in childhood with erythromycin. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1995; 21 (Suppl. 01) S60-62.
• 207 Vasconcellos E. et al. Analgesic rebound headache in children and adolescents. J Child Neurol 1998; 13: 443-447.
• 208 Victor S, Ryan SW. Drugs for preventing migraine headaches in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003; 4: CD002761.
• 209 Vieira JP, Salgueiro AB, Alfaro M. Short-lasting headaches in children. Cephalalgia 2006; 26: 1220-1224.
• 210 Visser WH. et al. Rizatriptan 5 mg for the acute treatment of migraine in adolescents: results from a double-blind, single-attack study and two open-label, multiple-attack studies. Headache 2004; 44: 891-899.
• 211 Visudtibhan A. et al. Flunarizine for prophylactic treatment of childhood migraine. J Med Assoc Thai 2004; 87: 1466-1470.
• 212 Volcy M. et al. Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with cranial autonomic symptoms (SUNA)- a case report. Cephalalgia 2005; 25: 470-472.
• 213 Wang F. et al. Oral magnesium oxide prophylaxis of frequent migrainous headache in children: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Headache 2003; 43: 601-610.
• 214 Winner P. et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo- controlled study of sumatriptan nasal spray in the treatment of acute migraine in adolescents. Pediatrics 2000; 106: 989-997.
• 215 Winner P. et al. Rizatriptan 5 mg for the acute treatment of migraine in adolescents: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Headache 2002; 42: 49.
• 216 Winner P. et al. Topiramate for migraine prevention in children: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Headache 2005; 45: 1304-1312.
• 217 Winner P. et al. Topiramate for migraine prevention in adolescents: A pooled analysis of efficacy and safety. Headache 2006; 46: 1503-1510.
• 218 Winner P. et al. Sumatriptan nasal spray in adolescent migraineurs: a randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled, acute study. Headache 2006; 46: 212-222.
• 219 Winner P. et al. Eletriptan for the acute treatment of migraine in adolescents: results of a doubleblind, placebo-controlled trial. Headache 2007; 47: 511-518.
• 220 Worawattanakul M. et al. Abdominal migraine: prophylactic treatment and follow-up. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1999; 28: 37-40.
• 221 Yglesias A. et al. Chiari type I malformation, glossopharyngeal neuralgia and central sleep apnoea in a child. Dev Med Child Neurol 1996; 38: 1126-1130.