Download PDF
Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2022; 43(03): 405-416
DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-1744305
Review Article

Mechanical Ventilation for COVID-19 Patients

Matteo Brioni
1   Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Emergency, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
,
Andrea Meli
1   Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Emergency, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
,
Giacomo Grasselli
1   Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Emergency, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
2   Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
› Author Affiliations
› Further Information
    Permissions and Reprints

Abstract

Non-invasive ventilation (NIV) or invasive mechanical ventilation (MV) is frequently needed in patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. While NIV can be delivered in hospital wards and nonintensive care environments, intubated patients require intensive care unit (ICU) admission and support. Thus, the lack of ICU beds generated by the pandemic has often forced the use of NIV in severely hypoxemic patients treated outside the ICU. In this context, awake prone positioning has been widely adopted to ameliorate oxygenation during noninvasive respiratory support. Still, the incidence of NIV failure and the role of patient self-induced lung injury on hospital outcomes of COVID-19 subjects need to be elucidated. On the other hand, endotracheal intubation is indicated when gas exchange deterioration, muscular exhaustion, and/or neurological impairment ensue. Yet, the best timing for intubation in COVID-19 is still widely debated, as it is the safest use of neuromuscular blocking agents. Not differently from other types of acute respiratory distress syndrome, the aim of MV during COVID-19 is to provide adequate gas exchange while avoiding ventilator-induced lung injury. At the same time, the use of rescue therapies is advocated when standard care is unable to guarantee sufficient organ support. Nevertheless, the general shortage of health care resources experienced during SARS-CoV-2 pandemic might affect the utilization of high-cost, highly specialized, and long-term supports. In this article, we describe the state-of-the-art of NIV and MV setting and their usage for acute hypoxemic respiratory failure of COVID-19 patients.

Keywords

COVID-19 - mechanical ventilation - respiratory failure - ARDS - VILI - P-SILI


Publication History

Article published online:
19 April 2022

© 2022. Thieme. All rights reserved.

Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc.
333 Seventh Avenue, 18th Floor, New York, NY 10001, USA

 

  • References

  • 1 World Health Organization. Director-General's opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19: March 11, 2020. Accessed November 10 at: https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19—11-march-2020
    PubMed
  • 2 World Health Organization. WHO coronavirus (COVID-19) dashboard. Accessed November 10, 2021 at: https://covid19.who.int
    PubMed
  • 3 Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA 2020; 323 (13) 1239-1242
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 4 Berlin DA, Gulick RM, Martinez FJ. Severe COVID-19. N Engl J Med 2020; 383 (25) 2451-2460
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 5 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID-19 Pandemic planning scenarios. 19 March, 2021. Accessed November 10, 2021 at: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/planning-scenarios.html
    PubMed
  • 6 Wunsch H. Mechanical ventilation in COVID-19: interpreting the current epidemiology. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 202 (01) 1-4
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 7 European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Data on hospital and ICU admission rates and current occupancy for COVID-19. November 11, 2021. Accessed November 11, 2021 at: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/download-data-hospital-and-icu-admission-rates-and-current-occupancy-covid-19
    PubMed
  • 8 Karagiannidis C, Mostert C, Hentschker C. et al. Case characteristics, resource use, and outcomes of 10 021 patients with COVID-19 admitted to 920 German hospitals: an observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8 (09) 853-862
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 9 Richardson S, Hirsch JS, Narasimhan M. et al. the Northwell COVID-19 Research Consortium. Presenting characteristics, comorbidities, and outcomes among 5700 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in the New York City area. JAMA 2020; 323 (20) 2052-2059
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 10 Grasselli G, Zangrillo A, Zanella A. et al. COVID-19 Lombardy ICU Network. Baseline characteristics and outcomes of 1591 patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 admitted to ICUs of the Lombardy Region, Italy. JAMA 2020; 323 (16) 1574-1581
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 11 Grasselli G, Greco M, Zanella A. et al. COVID-19 Lombardy ICU Network. Risk factors associated with mortality among patients with COVID-19 in intensive care units in Lombardy, Italy. JAMA Intern Med 2020; 180 (10) 1345-1355
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 12 Lim ZJ, Subramaniam A, Ponnapa Reddy M. et al. Case fatality rates for patients with COVID-19 requiring invasive mechanical ventilation. A meta-analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2021; 203 (01) 54-66
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 13 Mehta S, Hill NS. Noninvasive ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163 (02) 540-577
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 14 Rochwerg B, Brochard L, Elliott MW. et al. Official ERS/ATS clinical practice guidelines: noninvasive ventilation for acute respiratory failure. Eur Respir J 2017; 50 (02) 1602426
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 15 Hess DR. Noninvasive ventilation for acute respiratory failure. Respir Care 2013; 58 (06) 950-972
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 16 Grieco DL, Maggiore SM, Roca O. et al. Non-invasive ventilatory support and high-flow nasal oxygen as first-line treatment of acute hypoxemic respiratory failure and ARDS. Intensive Care Med 2021; 47 (08) 851-866
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 17 Grieco DL, Menga LS, Cesarano M. et al. COVID-ICU Gemelli Study Group. Effect of helmet noninvasive ventilation vs high-flow nasal oxygen on days free of respiratory support in patients with COVID-19 and moderate to severe hypoxemic respiratory failure: the HENIVOT randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2021; 325 (17) 1731-1743
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 18 Bellani G, Laffey JG, Pham T. et al. LUNG SAFE Investigators, ESICM Trials Group. Noninvasive ventilation of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. insights from the LUNG SAFE study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2017; 195 (01) 67-77
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 19 Kumar A, Zarychanski R, Pinto R. et al. Canadian Critical Care Trials Group H1N1 Collaborative. Critically ill patients with 2009 influenza A(H1N1) infection in Canada. JAMA 2009; 302 (17) 1872-1879
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 20 Boscolo A, Pasin L, Sella N. et al. FERS, for the COVID-19 VENETO ICU Network. Outcomes of COVID-19 patients intubated after failure of non-invasive ventilation: a multicenter observational study. Sci Rep 2021; 11 (01) 17730
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 21 Bellani G, Laffey JG, Pham T. et al. LUNG SAFE Investigators, ESICM Trials Group. Epidemiology, patterns of care, and mortality for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in intensive care units in 50 countries. JAMA 2016; 315 (08) 788-800
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 22 Schünemann HJ, Khabsa J, Solo K. et al. Ventilation techniques and risk for transmission of coronavirus disease, including COVID-19: a living systematic review of multiple streams of evidence. Ann Intern Med 2020; 173 (03) 204-216
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 23 Li J, Fink JB, Ehrmann S. High-flow nasal cannula for COVID-19 patients: low risk of bio-aerosol dispersion. Eur Respir J 2020; 55 (05) 2000892
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 24 Cabrini L, Landoni G, Zangrillo A. Minimise nosocomial spread of 2019-nCoV when treating acute respiratory failure. Lancet 2020; 395 (10225): 685
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 25 Nasa P, Azoulay E, Chakrabarti A. et al. Infection control in the intensive care unit: expert consensus statements for SARS-CoV-2 using a Delphi method. Lancet Infect Dis 2022 Mar;22(3):e74-e87. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(21)00626-5. Epub 2021 Nov 10
    PubMed
  • 26 Dar M, Swamy L, Gavin D, Theodore A. Mechanical-ventilation supply and options for the COVID-19 pandemic. leveraging all available resources for a limited resource in a crisis. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2021; 18 (03) 408-416
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 27 Grasselli G, Pesenti A, Cecconi M. Critical care utilization for the COVID-19 outbreak in Lombardy, Italy: early experience and forecast during an emergency response. JAMA 2020; 323 (16) 1545-1546
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 28 Vitacca M, Nava S, Santus P, Harari S. Early consensus management for non-ICU acute respiratory failure SARS-CoV-2 emergency in Italy: from ward to trenches. Eur Respir J 2020; 55 (05) 2000632
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 29 Menga LS, Berardi C, Ruggiero E, Grieco DL, Antonelli M. Noninvasive respiratory support for acute respiratory failure due to COVID-19. Curr Opin Crit Care 2022; 28 (01) 25-50
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 30 Bellani G, Grasselli G, Cecconi M. et al. Noninvasive ventilatory support of patients with covid-19 outside the intensive care units (ward-covid). Ann Am Thorac Soc 2021; 18 (06) 1020-1026
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 31 Bertaina M, Nuñez-Gil IJ, Franchin L. et al. HOPE COVID-19 investigators. Non-invasive ventilation for SARS-CoV-2 acute respiratory failure: a subanalysis from the HOPE COVID-19 registry. Emerg Med J 2021; 38 (05) 359-365
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 32 Franco C, Facciolongo N, Tonelli R. et al. Feasibility and clinical impact of out-of-ICU noninvasive respiratory support in patients with COVID-19-related pneumonia. Eur Respir J 2020; 56 (05) 2002130
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 33 Liu L, Xie J, Wu W. et al. A simple nomogram for predicting failure of non-invasive respiratory strategies in adults with COVID-19: a retrospective multicentre study. Lancet Digit Health 2021; 3 (03) e166-e174
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 34 Perkins GD, Ji C, Connolly BA. et al. Effect of Noninvasive Respiratory Strategies on Intubation or Mortality Among Patients With Acute Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure and COVID-19: The RECOVERY-RS Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA 2022; 327 (06) 546-558
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 35 Chosidow S, Plantefève G, Fraissé M, Mentec H, Cally R, Contou D. Non-intubated COVID-19 patients despite high levels of supplemental oxygen. Crit Care 2021; 25 (01) 170
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 36 van der Veer T, van der Sar-van der Brugge S, Paats MS. et al. Do-not-intubate status and COVID-19 mortality in patients admitted to Dutch non-ICU wards. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2021; 40 (10) 2207-2209
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 37 Morais CCA, Koyama Y, Yoshida T. et al. High positive end-expiratory pressure renders spontaneous effort noninjurious. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2018; 197 (10) 1285-1296
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 38 Yoshida T, Roldan R, Beraldo MA. et al. Spontaneous effort during mechanical ventilation: maximal injury with less positive end-expiratory pressure. Crit Care Med 2016; 44 (08) e678-e688
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 39 Yoshida T, Torsani V, Gomes S. et al. Spontaneous effort causes occult pendelluft during mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 188 (12) 1420-1427
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 40 Spinelli E, Mauri T, Beitler JR, Pesenti A, Brodie D. Respiratory drive in the acute respiratory distress syndrome: pathophysiology, monitoring, and therapeutic interventions. Intensive Care Med 2020; 46 (04) 606-618
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 41 Brochard L, Slutsky A, Pesenti A. Mechanical ventilation to minimize progression of lung injury in acute respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2017; 195 (04) 438-442
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 42 Battaglini D, Robba C, Ball L. et al. Noninvasive respiratory support and patient self-inflicted lung injury in COVID-19: a narrative review. Br J Anaesth 2021; 127 (03) 353-364
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 43 Weaver L, Das A, Saffaran S. et al. High risk of patient self-inflicted lung injury in COVID-19 with frequently encountered spontaneous breathing patterns: a computational modelling study. Ann Intensive Care 2021; 11 (01) 109
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 44 Hamouri S, Samrah SM, Albawaih O. et al. Pulmonary barotrauma in covid-19 patients: invasive versus noninvasive positive pressure ventilation. Int J Gen Med 2021; 14 (May): 2017-2032
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 45 Pattupara A, Modi V, Goldberg J. et al. Pulmonary barotrauma during noninvasive ventilation in patients with Covid-19. Chest 2020; 158 (04) A337
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 46 Tonelli R, Busani S, Tabbì L. et al. Inspiratory effort and lung mechanics in spontaneously breathing patients with acute respiratory failure due to COVID-19: a matched control study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2021; 204 (06) 725-728
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 47 Carteaux G, Millán-Guilarte T, De Prost N. et al. Failure of noninvasive ventilation for de novo acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: role of tidal volume. Crit Care Med 2016; 44 (02) 282-290
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 48 Coppola S, Chiumello D, Busana M. et al. Role of total lung stress on the progression of early COVID-19 pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 2021; 47 (10) 1130-1139
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 49 Guérin C, Reignier J, Richard JC. et al. PROSEVA Study Group. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2013; 368 (23) 2159-2168
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 50 Gattinoni L, Taccone P, Carlesso E, Marini JJ. Prone position in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Rationale, indications, and limits. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 188 (11) 1286-1293
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 51 Scaravilli V, Grasselli G, Castagna L. et al. Prone positioning improves oxygenation in spontaneously breathing nonintubated patients with hypoxemic acute respiratory failure: a retrospective study. J Crit Care 2015; 30 (06) 1390-1394
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 52 Solverson K, Weatherald J, Parhar KKS. Tolerability and safety of awake prone positioning COVID-19 patients with severe hypoxemic respiratory failure. Can J Anaesth 2021; 68 (01) 64-70
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 53 Coppo A, Winterton D, Benini A. et al. Rodin's thinker: an alternative position in awake patients with COVID-19. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2021; 204 (06) 728-730
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 54 Ponnapa Reddy M, Subramaniam A, Afroz A. et al. Prone positioning of nonintubated patients with coronavirus disease 2019-a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 2021; 49 (10) e1001-e1014
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 55 Ehrmann S, Li J, Ibarra-Estrada M. et al. Awake Prone Positioning Meta-Trial Group. Awake prone positioning for COVID-19 acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure: a randomised, controlled, multinational, open-label meta-trial. Lancet Respir Med 2021; 9 (12) 1387-1395
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 56 Rosén J, von Oelreich E, Fors D. et al. PROFLO Study Group. Awake prone positioning in patients with hypoxemic respiratory failure due to COVID-19: the PROFLO multicenter randomized clinical trial. Crit Care 2021; 25 (01) 209
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 57 Kharat A, Simon M, Guérin C. Prone position in COVID 19-associated acute respiratory failure. Curr Opin Crit Care 2022; 28 (01) 57-65
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 58 Russotto V, Myatra SN, Laffey JG. et al. INTUBE Study Investigators. Intubation practices and adverse peri-intubation events in critically ill patients from 29 countries. JAMA 2021; 325 (12) 1164-1172
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 59 Alhazzani W, Møller MH, Arabi YM. et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: guidelines on the management of critically ill adults with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Intensive Care Med 2020; 46 (05) 854-887
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 60 Matta A, Chaudhary S, Bryan Lo K. et al. Timing of intubation and its implications on outcomes in critically ill patients with coronavirus disease 2019 infection. Crit Care Explor 2020; 2 (10) e0262
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 61 Lee YH, Choi KJ, Choi SH. et al. Clinical significance of timing of intubation in critically ill patients with COVID-19: a multi-center retrospective study. J Clin Med 2020; 9 (09) E2847
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 62 Hernandez-Romieu AC, Adelman MW, Hockstein MA. et al. and the Emory COVID-19 Quality and Clinical Research Collaborative. Timing of intubation and mortality among critically ill coronavirus disease 2019 patients: a single-center cohort study. Crit Care Med 2020; 48 (11) e1045-e1053
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 63 Siempos II, Xourgia E, Ntaidou TK. et al. Effect of early vs. delayed or no intubation on clinical outcomes of patients with COVID-19: an observational study. Front Med (Lausanne) 2020; 7: 614152
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 64 Papoutsi E, Giannakoulis VG, Xourgia E, Routsi C, Kotanidou A, Siempos II. Effect of timing of intubation on clinical outcomes of critically ill patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis of non-randomized cohort studies. Crit Care 2021; 25 (01) 121
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 65 Higgs A, McGrath BA, Goddard C. et al. Difficult Airway Society, Intensive Care Society, Faculty of Intensive Care Medicine, Royal College of Anaesthetists. Guidelines for the management of tracheal intubation in critically ill adults. Br J Anaesth 2018; 120 (02) 323-352
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 66 El-Boghdadly K, Wong DJN, Owen R. et al. Risks to healthcare workers following tracheal intubation of patients with COVID-19: a prospective international multicentre cohort study. Anaesthesia 2020; 75 (11) 1437-1447
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 67 Hraiech S, Forel JM, Papazian L. The role of neuromuscular blockers in ARDS: benefits and risks. Curr Opin Crit Care 2012; 18 (05) 495-502
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 68 Jaber S, Petrof BJ, Jung B. et al. Rapidly progressive diaphragmatic weakness and injury during mechanical ventilation in humans. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183 (03) 364-371
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 69 Griffiths RD, Hall JB. Intensive care unit-acquired weakness. Crit Care Med 2010; 38 (03) 779-787
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 70 Testelmans D, Maes K, Wouters P, Powers SK, Decramer M, Gayan-Ramirez G. Infusions of rocuronium and cisatracurium exert different effects on rat diaphragm function. Intensive Care Med 2007; 33 (05) 872-879
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 71 Papazian L, Forel JM, Gacouin A. et al. ACURASYS Study Investigators. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2010; 363 (12) 1107-1116
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 72 Moss M, Huang DT, Brower RG. et al. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute PETAL Clinical Trials Network. Early neuromuscular blockade in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2019; 380 (21) 1997-2008
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 73 Tarazan N, Alshehri M, Sharif S. et al. GUIDE Group. Neuromuscular blocking agents in acute respiratory distress syndrome: updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Intensive Care Med Exp 2020; 8 (01) 61
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 74 Shao S, Kang H, Tong Z. Early neuromuscular blocking agents for adults with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. BMJ Open 2020; 10 (11) e037737
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 75 COVID-ICU Group on behalf of the REVA Network and the COVID-ICU Investigators. Clinical characteristics and day-90 outcomes of 4244 critically ill adults with COVID-19: a prospective cohort study. Intensive Care Med 2021; 47 (01) 60-73
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 76 Zanella A, Florio G, Antonelli M. et al. COVID-19 Italian ICU Network. Time course of risk factors associated with mortality of 1260 critically ill patients with COVID-19 admitted to 24 Italian intensive care units. Intensive Care Med 2021; 47 (09) 995-1008
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 77 Estenssoro E, Loudet CI, Ríos FG. et al. SATI-COVID-19 Study Group. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of invasively ventilated patients with COVID-19 in Argentina (SATICOVID): a prospective, multicentre cohort study. Lancet Respir Med 2021; 9 (09) 989-998
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 78 Li Bassi G, Gibbons K, Suen J. et al. Neuromuscular blocking agents in critically-ill COVID-19 patients requiring mechanical ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2021; 203: A2489
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 79 Alhazzani W, Belley-Cote E, Møller MH. et al. Neuromuscular blockade in patients with ARDS: a rapid practice guideline. Intensive Care Med 2020; 46 (11) 1977-1986
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 80 Grasselli G, Tonetti T, Protti A. et al. collaborators. Pathophysiology of COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome: a multicentre prospective observational study. Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8 (12) 1201-1208
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 81 Ferrando C, Suarez-Sipmann F, Mellado-Artigas R. et al. COVID-19 Spanish ICU Network. Clinical features, ventilatory management, and outcome of ARDS caused by COVID-19 are similar to other causes of ARDS. Intensive Care Med 2020; 46 (12) 2200-2211
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 82 Patel BV, Haar S, Handslip R. et al. United Kingdom COVID-ICU National Service Evaluation. Natural history, trajectory, and management of mechanically ventilated COVID-19 patients in the United Kingdom. Intensive Care Med 2021; 47 (05) 549-565
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 83 Botta M, Tsonas AM, Pillay J. et al. PRoVENT-COVID Collaborative Group. Ventilation management and clinical outcomes in invasively ventilated patients with COVID-19 (PRoVENT-COVID): a national, multicentre, observational cohort study. Lancet Respir Med 2021; 9 (02) 139-148
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 84 Cummings MJ, Baldwin MR, Abrams D. et al. Epidemiology, clinical course, and outcomes of critically ill adults with COVID-19 in New York City: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 2020; 395 (10239): 1763-1770
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 85 Nasa P, Azoulay E, Khanna AK. et al. Expert consensus statements for the management of COVID-19-related acute respiratory failure using a Delphi method. Crit Care 2021; 25 (01) 106
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 86 Fan E, Del Sorbo L, Goligher EC. et al. American Thoracic Society, European Society of Intensive Care Medicine, and Society of Critical Care Medicine. An official American Thoracic Society/European Society of Intensive Care Medicine/Society of Critical Care Medicine Clinical Practice Guideline: mechanical ventilation in adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2017; 195 (09) 1253-1263
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 87 Brower RG, Lanken PN, MacIntyre N. et al. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute ARDS Clinical Trials Network. Higher versus lower positive end-expiratory pressures in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2004; 351 (04) 327-336
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 88 Meade MO, Cook DJ, Guyatt GH. et al. Lung Open Ventilation Study Investigators. Ventilation strategy using low tidal volumes, recruitment maneuvers, and high positive end-expiratory pressure for acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008; 299 (06) 637-645
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 89 Mercat A, Richard JCM, Vielle B. et al. Expiratory Pressure (Express) Study Group. Positive end-expiratory pressure setting in adults with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008; 299 (06) 646-655
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 90 Cavalcanti AB, Suzumura ÉA, Laranjeira LN. et al. Writing Group for the Alveolar Recruitment for Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Trial (ART) Investigators. Effect of lung recruitment and titrated positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) vs low PEEP on mortality in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2017; 318 (14) 1335-1345
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 91 Briel M, Meade M, Mercat A. et al. Higher vs lower positive end-expiratory pressure in patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2010; 303 (09) 865-873
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 92 Grieco DL, Bongiovanni F, Chen L. et al. Respiratory physiology of COVID-19-induced respiratory failure compared to ARDS of other etiologies. Crit Care 2020; 24 (01) 529
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 93 Beloncle FM, Pavlovsky B, Desprez C. et al. Recruitability and effect of PEEP in SARS-Cov-2-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome. Ann Intensive Care 2020; 10 (01) 55
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 94 Sella N, Zarantonello F, Andreatta G, Gagliardi V, Boscolo A, Navalesi P. Positive end-expiratory pressure titration in COVID-19 acute respiratory failure: electrical impedance tomography vs. PEEP/FiO2 tables. Crit Care 2020; 24 (01) 540
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 95 Mauri T, Spinelli E, Scotti E. et al. Potential for lung recruitment and ventilation-perfusion mismatch in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome from coronavirus disease 2019. Crit Care Med 2020; 48 (08) 1129-1134
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 96 van der Zee P, Somhorst P, Endeman H, Gommers D. Electrical impedance tomography for positive end-expiratory pressure titration in COVID-19-related acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 202 (02) 280-284
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 97 Grasso S, Mirabella L, Murgolo F. et al. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure in “high compliance” severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 2020; 48 (12) e1332-e1336
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 98 Haudebourg AF, Perier F, Tuffet S. et al. Respiratory mechanics of COVID-19- versus non-COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 202 (02) 287-290
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 99 Guérin C, Albert RK, Beitler J. et al. Prone position in ARDS patients: why, when, how and for whom. Intensive Care Med 2020; 46 (12) 2385-2396
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 100 Guérin C, Beuret P, Constantin JM. et al. investigators of the APRONET Study Group, the REVA Network, the Réseau recherche de la Société Française d'Anesthésie-Réanimation (SFAR-recherche) and the ESICM Trials Group. A prospective international observational prevalence study on prone positioning of ARDS patients: the APRONET (ARDS Prone Position Network) study. Intensive Care Med 2018; 44 (01) 22-37
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 101 Langer T, Brioni M, Guzzardella A. et al. PRONA-COVID Group. Prone position in intubated, mechanically ventilated patients with COVID-19: a multi-centric study of more than 1000 patients. Crit Care 2021; 25 (01) 128
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 102 Park J, Lee HY, Lee J, Lee SM. Effect of prone positioning on oxygenation and static respiratory system compliance in COVID-19 ARDS vs. non-COVID ARDS. Respir Res 2021; 22 (01) 220
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 103 Cour M, Bussy D, Stevic N, Argaud L, Guérin C. Differential effects of prone position in COVID-19-related ARDS in low and high recruiters. Intensive Care Med 2021; 47 (09) 1044-1046
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 104 Stilma W, van Meenen DMP, Valk CMA. et al. On Behalf Of The PRoVENT-Covid Collaborative Group. Incidence and practice of early prone positioning in invasively ventilated COVID-19 patients-insights from the PRoVENT-COVID observational study. J Clin Med 2021; 10 (20) 4783
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 105 Mathews KS, Soh H, Shaefi S. et al. STOP-COVID Investigators. Prone positioning and survival in mechanically ventilated patients with coronavirus disease 2019-related respiratory failure. Crit Care Med 2021; 49 (07) 1026-1037
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 106 Rezoagli E, Mariani I, Rona R, Foti G, Bellani G. Difference between prolonged versus standard duration of prone position in COVID-19 patients: a retrospective study. Minerva Anestesiol 2021; 87 (12) 1383-1385
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 107 Yu B, Ichinose F, Bloch DB, Zapol WM. Inhaled nitric oxide. Br J Pharmacol 2019; 176 (02) 246-255
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 108 Hunt JL, Bronicki RA, Anas N. Role of inhaled nitric oxide in the management of severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Front Pediatr 2016; 4: 74
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 109 Tamburro RF, Kneyber MCJ. Pediatric Acute Lung Injury Consensus Conference Group. Pulmonary specific ancillary treatment for pediatric acute respiratory distress syndrome: proceedings from the Pediatric Acute Lung Injury Consensus Conference. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2015; 16 (5, Suppl 1): S61-S72
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 110 Griffiths MJD, McAuley DF, Perkins GD. et al. Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome. BMJ Open Respir Res 2019; 6 (01) e000420
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 111 Ferrari M, Santini A, Protti A. et al. Inhaled nitric oxide in mechanically ventilated patients with COVID-19. J Crit Care 2020; 60: 159-160
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 112 Longobardo A, Montanari C, Shulman R, Benhalim S, Singer M, Arulkumaran N. Inhaled nitric oxide minimally improves oxygenation in COVID-19 related acute respiratory distress syndrome. Br J Anaesth 2021; 126 (01) e44-e46
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 113 Abou-Arab O, Huette P, Debouvries F, Dupont H, Jounieaux V, Mahjoub Y. Inhaled nitric oxide for critically ill Covid-19 patients: a prospective study. Crit Care 2020; 24 (01) 645
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 114 Tonna JE, Abrams D, Brodie D. et al. Management of adult patients supported with venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VV ECMO): guideline from the extracorporeal life support organization (ELSO). ASAIO J 2021; 67 (06) 601-610
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 115 Henry BM, Lippi G. Poor survival with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) due to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Pooled analysis of early reports. J Crit Care 2020; 58: 27-28
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 116 Barbaro RP, MacLaren G, Boonstra PS. et al. Extracorporeal Life Support Organization. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support in COVID-19: an international cohort study of the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization registry. Lancet 2020; 396 (10257): 1071-1078
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 117 Combes A, Hajage D, Capellier G. et al. EOLIA Trial Group, REVA, and ECMONet. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2018; 378 (21) 1965-1975
    Search in Google Scholar
  • 118 Barbaro RP, MacLaren G, Boonstra PS. et al. Extracorporeal Life Support Organization. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for COVID-19: evolving outcomes from the international Extracorporeal Life Support Organization Registry. Lancet 2021; 398 (10307): 1230-1238
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 119 Kurihara C, Manerikar A, Gao CA. et al. Outcomes after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support in COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 patients. Artif Organs 2021
    PubMedSearch in Google Scholar
  • 120 Badulak J, Antonini MV, Stead CM. et al. ELSO COVID-19 Working Group Members. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for COVID-19: updated 2021 guidelines from the extracorporeal life support organization. ASAIO J 2021; 67 (05) 485-495
    CrossrefPubMedSearch in Google Scholar