ABSTRACT
Over the last four decades there have been remarkable advances in the diagnosis and treatment of venous thromboembolism (VTE)-pulmonary embolism (PE) and deep venous thrombosis (DVT). We have moved from no objective documentation to a plethora of ever improving imaging studies. Evolving treatment modalities have reduced the mortality due to PE to ~2%. Shorter hospitalizations followed by outpatient therapy are a growing reality. The use of primary prophylaxis is increasing, but more widespread use must be encouraged. Despite the many accomplishments, too many patients with VTE with its high mortality without treatment remain undiagnosed. There is a critical need to improve the role of the patient's history in identifying patients who warrant objective testing. The ideal would be the development of a biological marker of VTE, similar to the creatinine kinase-MB, creatinine kinase-MM, or troponin I in acute myocardial infarction.
KEYWORD
Venous thromboembolism - pulmonary embolism - deep venous thrombosis
REFERENCES
-
1
Stein P D, Terrin M L, Hales C A.
Clinical, laboratory, roentgenographic and electrocardiographic findings in patients with acute pulmonary embolism and no pre-existing cardiac or pulmonary disease.
Chest .
1991;
100
598-603
-
2
Neuhaus A, Bentz R R, Weg J G.
Pulmonary embolism in respiratory failure.
Chest .
1978;
73
460-465
-
3
Goldhaber S Z, Hennekens C H, Evans D A.
Factors associated with correct antemortem diagnosis of major pulmonary embolism.
Am J Med .
1982;
73
822-826
-
4
Stein P D, Henry J W.
Prevalence of acute pulmonary embolism among patients in a general hospital at autopsy.
Chest .
1995;
108
978-981
-
5
Wagner H N, Sabiston Jr C D, McAfee J G.
Diagnosis of massive pulmonary embolism in man by radioisotope scanning.
N Engl J Med .
1964;
271
377-384
-
6
Wagner H N, Lopez-Majano V, Langam J K.
Radioactive xenon in the differential diagnosis of pulmonary embolism.
Radiology .
1968;
91
1168-1174
-
7
Moser K M, Guisan M, Cuomo A.
Differentiation of pulmonary vascular from parenchymal diseases by ventilation/perfusion scintiphotography.
Ann Intern Med .
1971;
75
597-605
-
8
Sasahara A A, Stein M, Simon M.
Pulmonary angiography in the diagnosis of thromboembolic disease.
N Engl J Med .
1964;
270
1075-1081
-
9
Stein P D, O'Connor J F, Dalen J E.
The angiographic diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism: evaluation of criteria.
Am Heart J .
1967;
73
730-741
-
10
Bookstein J J, Silver T M.
The angiographic differential diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism.
Radiology .
1974;
110
25-33
-
11
McNeil B J.
A diagnostic strategy using ventilation-perfusion studies in patients suspect for pulmonary embolism.
J Nucl Med .
1976;
17
613-616
-
12
Bell W R, Simon T L.
A comparative analysis of pulmonary perfusion scans with pulmonary angiograms.
Am Heart J .
1976;
92
700-706
-
13
The PIOPED Investigators.
Value of the ventilation/perfusion scan in acute pulmonary embolism: result of the prospective investigators of pulmonary embolism diagnosis (PIOPED).
JAMA .
1990;
263
2753-2759
-
14
Berberich J, Hirsch S.
Die roentgenologische Darstellung der Arterien und Venen im lebenden Menschen.
Klin Wochenschr .
1923;
2
2226-2228
-
15
Rabinov K, Paulin S.
Roentgen diagnosis of venous thrombosis in the leg.
Arch Surg .
1972;
104
134-144
-
16
Landefeld C S, McGuire E, Cohen A M.
Clinical findings associated with acute proximal deep vein thrombosis: a basis for quantifying clinical judgment.
Am J Med .
1990;
92
582
-
17 Nicolaides A N, Meadway J, Irving D. The value of the clinical diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis. In: Nicolaides A
ed. Thromboembolism Etiology: Advances in Prevention Management. Baltimore: University Park Press 1975
-
18
Wheeler H B, Anderson Jr A F, Cardullo P A.
Suspected deep vein thrombosis: management by impedance plethysmography.
Arch Surg .
1982;
117
1206-1209
-
19
Lensing A WA, Doris C I, McGrath F P.
A comparison of compression ultrasound with color Doppler ultrasound for the diagnosis of symptomless postoperative deep vein thrombosis.
Arch Intern Med .
1997;
157
765-768
-
20
Murray G DW, Best C H.
The use of heparin in thrombosis.
Ann Surg .
1947;
108
163-177
-
21
Bauer G.
Thrombosis: early diagnosis and abortive treatment with heparin.
Lancet .
1946;
1
448-454
-
22
Barritt D W, Jordan S C.
Anticoagulant drugs in the treatment of pulmonary embolism: a controlled trial.
Lancet .
1960;
1
1309-1312
-
23
Butt H R, Allen E V, Bollman J L.
A preparation from spoiled sweet clover [331 methylene-bis-(+hydroxycoumarin)] which prolongs coagulation and prothrombic time of the blood: preliminary report of experimental and clinical studies.
Proc Staff Meet Mayo Clin .
1941;
16
388-395
-
24
Allen E V, Hines Jr A E, Kvale W F.
The use of dicumarol as an anticoagulant: experience in 2307 cases.
Ann Intern Med .
1947;
27
371-381
-
25
Sevitt S, Gallagher N G.
Prevention of venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in injured patients.
Lancet .
1959;
1
981-989
-
26
Hirsch J, Dalen J E, Deykin D.
Oral anticoagulants: Mechanism of action, clinical effectiveness, and optimal therapeutic range.
Chest .
1995;
108
231S-246S
-
27
Hyers T M, Agnelli G, Hull R D.
Sixth ACCP consensus conference on antithrombotic therapy: antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolism disease.
Chest.
in press;
-
28
Girard P, Musset D, Parent F.
High prevalence of detectable deep venous thrombosis in patients with acute pulmonary embolism.
Chest .
1999;
116
903-908
-
29
van Rossum B A, van Houwelingen C H, Kieft G J.
Prevalence of deep vein thrombosis in suspected and proven pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis.
Br J Radiol .
1998;
71
1260-1265
-
30
Weg J G.
Venous thromboembolism in pregnancy.
Semin Respir Crit Care Med .
1998;
19
231-241
-
31
Ferrari E, Chevallier T, Chapelier A.
Travel as a risk factor for venous thromboembolic disease: a case-control study.
Chest .
1999;
115
440-444
-
32
Koster T, Rosendaal F R, deRonde H.
Venous thrombosis due to poor anticoagulant response to activated protein C: Leiden thrombophilia study.
Lancet .
1993;
342
1503-1506
-
33
Svenson P J, Dahlback B.
Resistance to activated protein C as a basis for venous thrombosis.
N Engl J Med .
1994;
330
517-522
-
34
Dahlback B, Hildebrand B.
Inherited resistance to activated protein C is corrected by anticoagulant cofactor activity found to be a property of factor V.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA .
1994;
91
1396-1400
-
35
Ridker P M, Miletich J P, Hennekens C H.
Ethnic distribution of factor V Leiden in 4047 men and women: implications for venous thromboembolism screening.
JAMA .
1997;
277
1305-1307
-
36
Rosendaal F R, Siscovick D S, Schwartz S M.
A common prothrombin variant (20210 G to A) increases the risk of myocardial infarction in young women.
Blood .
1994;
90
1747-1750
-
37
Fermo I, D'Angelo S V, Paroni R.
Prevalence of moderate hyperhomocystenemia in patients with early onset venous and arterial occlusive disease.
Ann Intern Med .
1995;
123
747-753
-
38
Goddijn-Wessel T A, Wouters M G, Van de Molenef S.
A risk factor for placental abruption or infarction.
Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol .
1996;
66
23-29
-
39
Wouters M G, Boers G H, Blom H J.
Hyperhomocystenemia: a risk factor along with unexplained recurrent early pregnancy loss.
Fertil Steril .
1993;
60
820-825
-
40
Kearon C, Crowther M, Hirsh J.
Management of patients with hereditary hypercoagulable disorders.
Annu Rev Med .
2000;
51
169-185
-
41
Lockshin M D.
Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome.
Rheum Dis Clin North Am .
1994;
20
45-59
-
42
Ginsberg K S, Wells P S, Brill-Edwards P.
Antiphospholipid antibodies and venous thromboembolism.
Blood .
1995;
86
3685-3691
-
43
Petri M.
Pathogenesis and the treatment of the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome.
Adv Rheum .
1997;
81
151-177
-
44
Waterstone J J, Summers B A, Hoskins M C.
Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome and deep cerebral venous thrombosis.
Br J Obstet Gynaecol .
1992;
99
439-440
-
45
Fournet N, Surrey E, Kerin J.
Internal jugular vein thrombosis after ovulation induction with gonadotropins.
Fertil Steril .
1991;
56
354-356
-
46
Lesser B A, Leeper Jr V K, Stein P D.
The diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Chest .
1992;
102
17-22
-
47
Miniati M, Pistolesi M, Marini C.
Value of perfusion lung scan in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism: results of the Prospective Investigative Study of Acute Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis (PISA-PED).
Am J Respir Crit Care Med .
1996;
154
1387-1393
-
48
Stein P D, Athanasoulis C, Alavi A.
Complications and validity of pulmonary angiography in acute pulmonary embolism.
Circulation .
1992;
85
462-468
-
49
Heijboer H, Buller H R, Lensing A W.
A comparison of real-time compression ultrasonography with impedance plethysmography for the diagnosis of deep-vein thrombosis in symptomatic outpatients.
N Engl J Med .
1993;
329
1365-1369
-
50
Hull R D, Hirsch J, Carter C J.
Diagnostic efficacy of impedance plethysmography for clinically suspected deep vein thrombosis.
Ann Intern Med .
1985;
102
21-28
-
51
Huisman M V, Buller H R, Ten Cate W J.
Serial impedance plethysmography for suspected deep venous thrombosis in outpatients: the Amsterdam General Practitioner Study.
N Engl J Med .
1986;
314
823-828
-
52
Tapson V F, Carroll B A, Davidson B L.
The diagnostic approach to acute venous thromboembolism. Clinical practice guideline. American Thoracic Society.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med .
1999;
160
1043-1066
-
53
Comerota A J, Katz M L, Hashemi H A.
Venous duplex imaging for the diagnosis of acute deep venous thrombosis.
Haemostasis .
1993;
23(Suppl 1)
61-71
-
54
Lensing A W, Prandoni P, Brandjes D.
Detection of deep-vein thrombosis by real-time B-mode ultrasonography.
N Engl J Med .
1989;
320
342-345
-
55
Messina L M, Sarpa M S, Smith M A.
Clinical significance of routine imaging of iliac and calf veins by color flow duplex scanning in patients suspected of having acute lower extremity deep venous thrombosis.
Surgery .
1993;
114
921-927
-
56
Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Artaud D.
Spiral CT of pulmonary embolism: diagnostic approach, interpretive pitfalls and current indications.
Eur Radiol .
1998;
8
1376-1390
-
57
Mullins M D, Becker D M, Hagspiel K D.
The role of spiral volumetric computed tomography in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism.
Arch Intern Med .
2000;
160
293-298
-
58
Rathbun S W, Raskob G E, Whisett T L.
Sensitivity and specificity of helical computed tomography in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism: a systematic review.
Ann Intern Med .
2000;
132
227-232
-
59
Oser R F, DA Zuckerman, Gutierrez F R.
Anatomic distribution of pulmonary emboli at pulmonary angiography: implications for cross-sectional imaging.
Radiology .
1996;
199
31-35
-
60
Stein P D, Henry J W.
Prevalence of acute pulmonary embolism in central and subsegmental pulmonary arteries and relation to probability interpretation of ventilation-perfusion lung scans.
Chest .
1997;
111
1246-1248
-
61
Meaney J F, Weg J G, Chenevert T L.
Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism with magnetic resonance angiography.
N Engl J Med .
1997;
336
1422-1427
-
62
Gupta A, Frazer C K, Ferguson J M.
Acute pulmonary embolism: diagnosis with MR angiography.
Radiology .
1999;
210
353-359
-
63
Sostman H D, Layish D T, Tapson V F.
Prospective comparison of helical CT and MR imaging in clinically suspected acute pulmonary embolism.
J Magn Reson Imaging .
1996;
6
275-281
-
64
Kubik-Huch R A, Hebisch G, Huch R.
Role of duplex color Doppler ultrasound, computed tomography, and MR angiography in the diagnosis of septic puerperal ovarian vein thrombosis.
Abdom Imaging .
1999;
24
85-91
-
65
Ginsberg J S, Wells P S, Kearon C.
Sensitivity and specificity of a rapid whole-blood assay for D-dimer in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism.
Ann Intern Med .
1998;
129
1006-1011
-
66
Heit J A, Minor T A, Andrews J C.
Determinants of plasma fibrin D-dimer sensitivity for acute pulmonary embolism as defined by pulmonary angiography.
Arch Pathol Lab Med .
1999;
123
235-240
-
67
Oger E, Leroyer C, Bressollette L.
Evaluation of a new, rapid, and quantitative D-dimer test in patients with suspected pulmonary embolism.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med .
1998;
158
65-70
-
68
Kollef M H, Zahid M, Eisenberg P R.
Predictive value of a rapid semiquantitative D-dimer assay in critically ill patients with suspected venous thromboembolic disease.
Crit Care Med .
2000;
28
414-420
-
69
Farrell S, Hayes T, Shaw M.
A negative SimpliREd D-dimer assay result does not exclude the diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolus in emergency department patients.
Ann Emerg Med .
2000;
35
121-125
-
70
Francalanci I, Comeglio P, Alessandrello Liotta A.
D-dimer plasma levels during normal pregnancy measured by specific ELISA.
Int J Clin Lab Res .
1997;
27
65-67
-
71
Jardin F, Dubourg O, Bourdarias J-P.
Echocardiographic pattern of acute cor pulmonale.
Chest .
1997;
111
209-217
-
72
Krivee B, Voga G, Zuran I.
Diagnosis and treatment of shock due to massive pulmonary embolism.
Chest .
1997;
112
1310-1316
-
73
Viellard-Baron A, Qanadli S D, Antakly Y.
Transesophageal echocardiography for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism with acute cor pulmonale: a comparison with radiological procedures.
Intensive Care Med .
1998;
24
429-433
-
74
Pruszczyk P, Torbicki A, Pacho R.
Noninvasive diagnosis of suspected severe pulmonary embolism.
Chest .
1997;
112
722-728
-
75
Dolovich L R, Ginsberg J S, Douketis J D.
A meta-analysis comparing low-molecular-weight heparins with unfractionated heparin in the treatment of venous thromboembolism: examining some unanswered questions regarding location of treatment, product type, and dosing frequency.
Arch Intern Med .
2000;
160
181-188
-
76
A Collaborative European Multicentre Study.
A randomized trial of subcutaneous low molecular weight heparin (CY 216) compared with intravenous unfractionated heparin in the treatment of deep vein thrombosis.
Thromb Haemost .
1991;
65
251-256
-
77
Abada J, Nieuwenhuis H K, Sixma J J.
Treatment of acute venous thromboembolism with low molecular weight heparin (Fragmin): results of a double-blind randomized study.
Circulation .
1989;
80
935-940
-
78
Bratt G, Aberg W, Johansson M.
Two daily subcutaneous injections of Fragmin as compared with intravenous standard heparin in the treatment of deep venous thrombosis (DVT).
Thromb Haemost .
1990;
64
506-510
-
79
Bratt G, Tornebohm E, Granqvist S.
A comparison between low molecular weight heparin (KABI 2165) and standard heparin in the intravenous treatment of deep venous thrombosis.
Thromb Haemost .
1985;
54
813-817
-
80
Holm H A, Ly B, Handeland G F.
Subcutaneous heparin treatment of deep venous thrombosis: a comparison of unfractionated and low molecular weight heparin.
Haemostasis .
1986;
16
30-37
-
81
Albada J, Neuwenhuis H K, Sixma J J.
Comparison of intravenous standard heparin and Fragmin in the treatment of venous thromboembolism: a randomized double-blind study.
Thromb Res .
1987;
7(Suppl)
24
-
82
Simonneau G, Charbonnier B, Decousus H.
Subcutaneous low molecular weight heparin compared with continuous intravenous unfractionated heparin in the treatment of proximal deep vein thrombosis.
Arch Intern Med .
1993;
153
1541-1546
-
83
Handeland G F, Abildgaard U, Holm H A.
Dose adjusted heparin treatment of deep venous thrombosis: a comparison of unfractionated and low molecular weight heparin.
Eur J Clin Pharmacol .
1990;
39
107-112
-
84
Prandoni P, Lensing A W, Buller H R.
Comparison of subcutaneous low molecular weight heparin with intravenous standard heparin in proximal vein thrombosis.
Lancet .
1992;
339
441-445
-
85
Hull R D, Raskob G E, Pineo G F.
Subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin compared with continuous intravenous unfractionated heparin in the proximal-vein thrombosis.
N Engl J Med .
1992;
326
975-982
-
86
Lindmarker P, Holstrom M, Granqvist S.
Comparison of once-daily subcutaneous Fragmin with continuous intravenous unfractionated heparin in the treatment of deep vein thrombosis.
Thromb Haemost .
1994;
72
186-190
-
87
Luomanmaki K, Granqvist S, Hallert C.
A multicentre comparison of once-daily subcutaneous dalteparin (low molecular weight heparin) and continuous intravenous heparin in the treatment of deep vein thrombosis.
J Intern Med .
1996;
240
85-92
-
88
Kirrchmaier C M, Wolf H, Scheafer H.
Efficacy of a low molecular weight heparin administered intravenously or subcutaneously in comparison with intravenous unfractionated heparin in the treatment of deep venous thrombosis. Certopain Study Group.
Int Angiol .
1998;
17
135-145
-
89
Meyer G, Brenot F, Pacouret G.
Subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin fragmin versus intravenous unfractionated heparin in the treatment of acute non massive pulmonary embolism: an open randomized pilot study.
Thromb Haemost .
1995;
74
1432-1435
-
90
Siragusa S, Cosmi B, Piovella F.
Low-molecular-weight heparins and unfractionated heparin in the treatment of patients with acute venous thromboembolism: results of a meta-analysis.
Am J Med .
1996;
100
269-277
-
91
Gould M K, Dembitzer A D, Doyle R L.
Low-molecular-weight heparins compared with unfractionated heparin for treatment of acute deep venous thrombosis.
Ann Intern Med .
1999;
130
800-809
-
92
Hull R D, Raskob G E, Brant R F.
Low molecular weight heparin vs heparin in the treatment of patients with pulmonary embolism. American-Canadian Thrombosis Study Group.
Arch Intern Med .
2000;
160
229-236
-
93
Brandjes D P, Buller H R, Heijboer H.
Randomized trial of effect of compression stockings in patients with symptomatic proximal-vein thrombosis.
Lancet .
1997;
349
759-762
-
94
Carson J L, Kelley M A, Duff A.
The clinical course of pulmonary embolism.
N Engl J Med .
1992;
326
1240-1245
-
95
Douketis J D, Kearon C, Bates S.
Risk of fatal pulmonary embolism in patients with treated venous thromboembolism.
JAMA .
1998;
279
458-462
-
96
Hyers T M.
Venous thromboembolism.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med .
1999;
159
1-14
-
97
Casele H L, Laifer S A, Woelkers D A.
Changes in the pharmacokinetics of the low-molecular-weight heparin enoxaparin sodium during pregnancy.
Am J Obstet Gynecol .
1999;
181
1113-1117
-
98
Levine M, Gent M, Hirsh J.
A comparison of low-molecular-weight heparin administered primarily at home with unfractionated heparin administered in the hospital for proximal deep-vein thrombosis.
N Engl J Med .
1996;
334
677-681
-
99
Koopman M M, Prandoni P, Piovella F.
Treatment of venous thrombosis with intravenous unfractionated heparin administered in the hospital as compared with subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin administered at home. The Tasman Study Group.
N Engl J Med .
1996;
334
682-687
-
100
Kovacs M J, Anderson D, Morrow B.
Outpatient treatment of pulmonary embolism with dalteparin.
Thromb Haemost .
2000;
83
209-211
-
101
Dunn A S, Coller B.
Outpatient treatment of deep vein thrombosis: Translating clinical trials into practice.
Am J Med .
1999;
106
660-669
-
102
Penner J A.
Experience with a thrombin clotting time assay for measuring heparin activity.
Am J Clin Pathol .
1974;
61
645-653
-
103
Baker B A, Adelman M D, Smith P A.
Inability of the activated partial thromboplastin time to predict heparin levels. Time to reassess guidelines for heparin assays.
Arch Intern Med .
1997;
157
2475-2479
-
104
Krulder J WM, de Boer A, van den Besselaar A H P M.
Diurnal rhythm in anticoagulant effect of heparin during low dose constant rate infusion.
Thromb Haemost .
1998;
68
30-32
-
105
Kearon C, Johnston M, Moffat K.
Effect of warfarin on activated partial thromboplastin time in patients receiving heparin.
Arch Intern Med .
1998;
158
1140-1143
-
106
Delorme M A, Inwood M J, O'Keefe B.
Sensitivity of the thrombin clotting time and activated partial thromboplastin time to low level of antithrombin III during heparin therapy.
Clin Lab Haemat .
1990;
12
433-436
-
107
Hull R D, Raskob G E, Rosenbloom D.
Optimal therapeutic level of heparin therapy in patients with venous thrombosis.
Arch Intern Med .
1992;
152
1589-1595
-
108
Hull R D, Raskob G E, Hirsh J.
Continuous intravenous heparin compared with intermittent subcutaneous heparin in the initial treatment of proximal-vein thrombosis.
N Engl J Med .
1986;
315
1109-1114
-
109
Hull R D, Raskob G E, Brant R F.
Relation between the time to achieve the lower limit of the APTT therapeutic range and recurrent venous thromboembolism during heparin treatment for deep vein thrombosis.
Arch Intern Med .
1997;
157
2562-2568
-
110
Hull R, Hirsh J, Jay R.
Different intensities of oral anticoagulant therapy in the treatment of proximal-vein thrombosis.
N Engl J Med .
1982;
307
1676-1681
-
111
Schulman S, Granqvist S, Holmstrom M.
The duration of oral anticoagulant therapy after a second episode of venous thromboembolism. The Duration of Anticoagulation Trial Study Group.
N Engl J Med .
1997;
336
393-398
-
112
Research Committee of the British Thoracic Society.
Optimum duration of anticoagulation for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.
Lancet .
1992;
340
873-876
-
113
Kearon C, Gent M, Hirsh J.
A comparison of three months of anticoagulation with extended anticoagulation for a first episode of idiopathic venous thromboembolism.
N Engl J Med .
1999;
340
901-907
-
114
Schulman S, AS Rhedin, P Lindmarker, et al.
A comparison of six weeks with six months of oral anticoagulant therapy after a first episode of venous thromboembolism. Duration of Anticoagulation Trial Study Group.
N Engl J Med .
1995;
332
1661-1665
-
115
Toglia M R, Weg J G.
Venous thromboembolism during pregnancy.
N Engl J Med .
1996;
335
108-114
-
116
Eriksson B I, Wille-Jorgensen P, Kalebo P.
A comparison of recombinant hirudin with a low-molecular-weight heparin to prevent thromboembolic complications after total hip replacement.
N Engl J Med .
1997;
337
1329-1335
-
117
Schiele F, Vuillemenot A, Kramarz P.
Use of recombinant hirudin as antithrombotic treatment in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia.
Am J Hematol .
1995;
50
20-25
-
118
Greinacher A, Volpel H, Janssens U.
Recombinant hirudin (lepirudin) provides safe and effective anticoagulation in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: a prospective study.
Circulation .
1999;
99
73-80
-
119
Lewis B E, Walenga J M, Wallis D E.
Anticoagulation with Novastan (argatroban) in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis syndrome.
Semin Thromb Hemost .
1997;
23
197-202
-
120
Urokinase Pulmonary Embolism Trial.
Phase I results.
JAMA .
1970;
214
2163-2172
-
121
Urokinase Streptokinase Pulmonary Embolism Trial.
Phase II results.
JAMA .
1974;
229
1606-1613
-
122
Levine M, Hirsch J, Weitz J I.
A randomized trial of a single bolus dosage regimen of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in patients with acute pulmonary embolism.
Chest .
1990;
98
1473-1479
-
123
Dalla-Volta S, Palla A, Santolicandro A.
PAIMS 2: alteplase combined with heparin versus heparin in the treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. Plasminogen activator Italian multicenter study 2.
J Am College Cardiol .
1992;
20
520-526
-
124
Dalen J E, Alpert J S, Hirsh J.
Thrombolytic therapy for pulmonary embolism: is it effective?.
<~>Is it safe? <~>When is it indicated? Arch Intern Med .
1997;
157
2550-2556
-
125
Mikkola K M, Patel S R, Parker J A.
Increasing age is a major risk factor for hemorrhagic complications after pulmonary embolism thrombolysis.
Am Heart J .
1997;
134
69-72
-
126
Hyers T M, Hull R D, Weg J G.
Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease.
Chest .
1992;
102
408S-425S
-
127
ACCP Consensus Committee on Pulmonary Embolism.
Opinions regarding the diagnosis and management of venous thromboembolic disease.
Chest .
1996;
109
233-237
-
128
Konstantinides S, Geibel A, Olschewshi M.
Association between thrombolytic treatment and the prognosis of hemodynamically stable patients with major pulmonary embolism. Results of a multicenter registry.
Circulation .
1997;
96
882-888
-
129
Kasper W, Konstantinides S, Geibel A.
Prognostic significance of right ventricular afterload stress detected by echocardiography in patients with clinically suspected pulmonary embolism.
Heart .
1997;
77
346-349
-
130
Goldhaber S Z, Visani L, DeRosa M.
Acute pulmonary embolism: clinical outcomes in the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER).
Lancet .
1999;
353
1386-1389
-
131
Ribeiro A, Lindmarker P, Juhlin-Dannfelt A.
Echocardiography Doppler in pulmonary embolism: right ventricular dysfunction as a predictor of mortality rate.
Am Heart J .
1997;
134
479-487
-
132
Greenfield L J, Rutherford R B.
Recommended reporting standards for vena caval filter placement and patient follow-up. Vena Caval Filter Consensus Conference.
J Vasc Intervent Radiol .
1999;
10
1013-1019
-
133
Fink J A, Jones B T.
The Greenfield filter as the primary means of therapy in venous thromboembolic disease.
Surg Gynecol Obstet .
1991;
172
253-292
-
134
Leach T A, Pastena J A, Swan K G.
Surgical prophylaxis for pulmonary embolism.
Am Surg .
1994;
60
292-295
-
135
Dorfman G S.
Percutaneous inferior vena caval filters.
Radiology .
1990;
174
987-992
-
136
Greenfield L J, Proctor M C.
Suprarenal filter placement.
J Vasc Surg .
1998;
28
432-438
-
137
Tola J C, Holtzman R, Lottenberg L.
Bedside placement of inferior vena cava filters in the intensive care unit.
Am Surg .
1999;
65
833-837
-
138
Linsenmaier U, Rieger J, Schenk F.
Indications, management, and complications of temporary inferior vena cava filters.
Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol .
1998;
21
464-469
-
139
Spence L K, Gironta M G, Malde H M.
Acute upper extremity deep venous thrombosis: Safety and effectiveness of superior vena caval filters.
Radiology .
1999;
210
53-58
-
140
Greenfield L J, Cho K J, Proctor M C.
Results of a multicenter study of the modified hook-titanium Greenfield filter.
J Vasc Surg .
1991;
14
253-257
-
141
Decousus H, Leizorovicz A, Parent F.
A clinical trial of vena caval filters in the prevention of pulmonary embolism in patients with proximal deep-vein thrombosis. Prevention du Risque d'Embolie Pulmonaire par Interruption Cave Study Group.
N Engl J Med .
1998;
338
409-415
-
142
Hubbard K P, Roehm Jr O J, Abbruzzese J L.
The bird's nest filter: an alternative to long-term oral anticoagulation in patients with advanced malignancies.
Am J Clin Oncol .
1994;
17
115-117
-
143
Lord R S, Benn I.
Early and late results after bird's nest filter placement in the inferior vena cava: clinical and duplex ultrasound follow up.
Aust N Z J Surg .
1994;
64
106-114
-
144
Murphy T P, Dorfman G S, Yedicka J W.
LGM vena cava filter: objective evaluation of early results.
J Vasc Intervent Radiol .
1991;
2
107-115
-
145
Millward S F, Peterson R A, Moher D.
LGM (Vena Tech) vena caval filter: experience at a single institution.
J Vasc Intervent Radiol .
1994;
5
351-356
-
146
Crochet D P, Brunel P, Trogrlic S.
Long-term follow-up of vena tech-LGM filter: predictors and frequency of caval occlusion.
J Vasc Intervent Radiol .
1999;
10
137-142
-
147
Bull P G, Mendel H, Schlegl A.
Gunther vena caval filters: clinical appraisal.
J Vasc Intervent Radiol .
1992;
34
395-399
-
148
Meyer G, Tamisier D, Sors H.
Pulmonary embolectomy: a 20-year experience at one center.
Ann Thorac Surg .
1991;
51
232-236
-
149
Gray H H, Morgan J M, Paneth M.
Pulmonary embolectomy for acute massive pulmonary embolism: an analysis of 71 cases.
Br Heart J .
1988;
60
196-200
-
150
Clarke D B, Abrams L D.
Pulmonary embolectomy: a 25 year experience.
J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg .
1986;
92
442-445
-
151
Ullmann M, Hemmer W, Hannekum A.
The urgent pulmonary embolectomy: mechanical resuscitation in the operating theatre determines the outcome.
Thorac Cardiovasc Surg .
1999;
47
5-8
-
152
Stewart J R, Greenfield L J.
Transvenous vena caval filtration and pulmonary embolectomy.
Surg Clin North Am .
1982;
62
411-430
-
153
Timsit J F, Reynaud P, Meyer G.
Pulmonary embolectomy by catheter device in massive pulmonary embolism.
Chest .
1991;
100
655-658
-
154
Koning R, Cribier A, Gerber L.
A new treatment for severe pulmonary embolism: percutaneous rheolytic thrombectomy.
Circulation .
1997;
96
2498-2500
-
155
Fava M, Loyola S, Flores P.
Mechanical fragmentation and pharmacologic thrombolysis in massive pulmonary embolism.
J Intervent Radiol .
1997;
8
261-266
-
156
Claggett G P, Anderson Jr A F, Geerts W.
Prevention of venous thromboembolism.
Chest .
1998;
114
531S-560S
-
157
Mismetti P, Laporte-Simitsidis S, Tardy B.
Prevention of venous thromboembolism in internal medicine with unfractionated or low-molecular-weight heparins: a meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials.
Thromb Haemost .
2000;
83
14-19
-
158
Hirsch D R, Ingenito E P, Goldhaber S Z.
Prevalence of deep venous thrombosis among patients in medical intensive care.
JAMA .
1995;
274
335-337
-
159
Pingleton S K, Bone R C, Pingleton W W.
Prevention of pulmonary emboli in a respiratory intensive care unit: efficacy of low-dose heparin.
Chest .
1981;
79
647-650
-
160
Geerts W H, Jay R M, Code K I.
A comparison of low-dose heparin with low-molecular-weight heparin as prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after major trauma.
N Engl J Med .
1996;
335
701-707
-
161
Greenfield L J, Proctor M C, Rodriguez J L.
Posttrauma thromboembolism prophylaxis.
J Trauma Injury Infect Crit Care .
1997;
42
100-103
-
162
Knudson M, Morabito D, Paiement G D.
Use of low molecular weight heparin in preventing thromboembolism in trauma patients.
J Trauma Injury Infect Crit Care .
1996;
41
446-459
-
163
Hull R, Raskob G, Pineo G.
A comparison of subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin with warfarin sodium for prophylaxis against deep-vein thrombosis after hip or knee implantation.
N Engl J Med .
1993;
329
1370-1376
-
164
Bergqvist D, Benoni G, Bjorgell O.
Low-molecular-weight heparin (enoxaparin) as prophylaxis against venous thromboembolism after total hip replacement.
N Engl J Med .
1996;
335
696-700
-
165
Modig J, Borg T, Karlstrom G.
Thromboembolism after total hip replacement: role of epidural and general anesthesia.
Anesth Analg .
1983;
62
174-180
-
166
McKenzie P J, Wishart H Y, Gray I.
Effects of anaesthetic technique on deep vein thrombosis. A comparison of subarachnoid and general anaesthesia.
Br J Anaesth .
1985;
57
853-857
-
167
Collins R, Scrimgeour A, Yusuf S.
Reduction in fatal pulmonary embolism and venous thrombosis by perioperative administration of subcutaneous heparin. Overview of results of randomized trials in general, orthopedic, and urologic surgery.
N Engl J Med .
1988;
318
1162-1173
-
168
Pulmonary Embolism Prevention (PEP) Trial Collaborative Group.
Prevention of pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis with low dose aspirin: pulmonary Embolism Prevention (PEP) trial.
Lancet .
2000;
355
1295-1302
-
169
Sors H, Meyer G.
Place of aspirin in prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism.
Lancet .
2000;
355
1288-1289
-
170
Stratton M A, Anderson F A, Bussey H I.
Prevention of venous thromboembolism: adherence to the 1995 American College of Chest Physicians consensus guidelines for surgical patients.
Arch Intern Med .
2000;
160
334-340
-
171
Wells P S, Anderson D R, Bormanis J.
Value of assessment of pretest probability of deep vein thrombosis in clinical management.
Lancet .
1997;
350
1795-1798
-
172
Wells P S, Ginsberg J S, Anderson D R.
Use of clinical model for safe management of patients with suspected pulmonary embolism.
Ann Intern Med .
1998;
129
997-1005
-
173
Miniati M, Prediletto R, Formichi B.
Accuracy of clinical assessment in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med .
1999;
159
864-871
-
174
Patil S, Henry J W, Rubenfire M.
Neural network in the clinical diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism.
Chest .
1993;
104
1685-1689
-
175
Tourassi G D, Floyd C E, Coleman R E.
Improved noninvasive diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism with optimally selected clinical and chest radiographic findings.
Acad Radiol .
1996;
3
1012-1018
1 *A diligent, but not exhaustive, search was made for the appropriate references in this section.
