Cardiomyopathy is a major cause of death in overt acromegaly. Recent progress in research has increasingly revealed the molecular mechanisms concerning growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor in the development of heart failure. In this article, we propose mechanisms according to which heart failure occurs, and we aim to extrapolate this knowledge to more general processes involved in heart failure.
KEYWORDS
Acromegaly - cardiovascular disease - insulin-like growth factor - cardiac adaptive properties
REFERENCES
-
1
Rajasoorya C, Holdaway I M, Wrightson P, Scott D J, Ibbertson H K.
Determinants of clinical outcome and survival in acromegaly.
Clin Endocrinol (Oxf).
1994;
41
95-102
-
2
Lombardi G C.
Effect of growth hormone on cardiac function.
Horm Res.
1997;
48(suppl. 4)
42
-
3
Twickler T B, Dallinga-Thie G M, Zelissen P MJ, Koppeschaar H PF, Erkelens D W.
The atherogenic plasma remnant-like particle cholesterol concentration is increased in the fasting and postprandial state in active acromegalic patients.
Clin Endocrinol (Oxf).
2001;
55
69-75
-
4
Orme S M, McNally R J, Cartwright R A, Belchetz P E.
Mortality and cancer incidence in acromegaly: a retrospective cohort study. United Kingdom Acromegaly Study Group.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
1998;
38
2730-2734
-
5
Swaeringen B, Barker F GI, Katznelson L et al..
Long term mortality after transfenoidal surgery and adjunctive therapy for acromegaly.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
1998;
83
3419-3426
-
6
Baldelli R, Ferretti E, Jaffrain-Rea M L et al..
Cardiac effects of slow-release lanreotide, a slow-release somatostatin analog, in acromegalic patients.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
1999;
84
527-532
-
7
Lamberts S WJ, Lely AJ vd, de Herder W W, Hofland L J.
Octreotide.
N Engl J Med.
1996;
334
246-254
-
8
Baldwin A, Cundy T, Butler J, Timmis A D.
Progression of cardiovascular disease in acromegalic patients treated by external pituitary radiation.
Acta Endocrinol (Copenh).
1985;
100
581-587
-
9
Jaffe C A.
Reevaluation of conventional pituitary irradiation in the therapy of acromegaly.
Pituitary.
1999;
2
55-62
-
10
Calaoa A, Marzullo P, Di Somma C, Lombardi G.
Gowth hormone and the heart.
Clin Endocrinol.
2001;
54
137-154
-
11
Boger R H.
Role of nitric oxide in the haemodynamic effects of growth hormone.
Growth Horm IGF Res.
1998;
8
163-165
-
12
Melby J C.
Aldosteron-an independent risk factor in cardiovascular disease.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
2002;
87
447
-
13
Stromer H, Cittadine A, Grossman J D, Douglas P S, Morgan J P.
Intrinsic cardiac muscle function, calcium handling and beta-adrenergic responsiveness is impaired in rats with growth hormone deficiency.
Growth Horm IGF Res.
1999;
9
262-271
-
14
Cittadine A, Stromer H, Vattner D E et al..
Consequences of growth hormone deficiency on cardiac structure, function and beta-adrenergic pathway: studies in mutant dwarf rats.
Endocrinology.
1997;
138
5161-5169
-
15
Capaldo B, Lembo G, Rendina V et al..
Muscle sympathetic nerve activity in patients with acromegaly.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
2000;
85
3203-3207
-
16
Saccà L, Cittadine A, Fazio A.
Growth hormone and the heart.
Endocr Rev.
1994;
15
555-573
-
17
Fazio S, Cittadine A, Biondi B et al..
Cardiovascular effects of short term growth hormone hypersecretion.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
2000;
85
179-182
-
18
Mercuro G, Zonco S, Colonna P et al..
Cardiac dysfunction in acromegaly: evidence by pulsed wave tissue Doppler imaging.
Eur J Endocrinol.
2000;
143
363-369
-
19
Wang L, Ma W, Markovich R, Chen J W, Wang P H.
Regulation of cardiomyocyte apoptotic signaling by insulin-like growth factor I.
Circ Res.
1998;
83
516-522
-
20
Mathews L S, Enberg B, Norstedt G.
Regulation of the rat growth hormone receptor gene expression.
J Biol Chem.
1989;
264
9905-9910
-
21
Nagaya N, Kojima M, Uematsu M et al..
Hemodynamic and hormonal effects of human ghrelin in healthy volunteers.
Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol.
2001;
280
R1483-1487
-
22
Anversa P, Kajstura J.
Ventricular myocytes are not terminally differentiated in the adult mammalian heart.
Circ Res.
1998;
83
1-14
-
23
Saccà L, Fazio S.
Cardiac performance: growth hormone enters the race.
Nat Med.
1996;
2
29-31
-
24
Sjogren K, Liu L J, Blad K et al..
Liver derived insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) is the principal source of IGF-I in the blood but is not required for postnatal body growth in mice.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA.
1999;
96
7088-7092
-
25
Komuro I, Yazaki Y.
Control of cardiac gene expression by mechanical stress.
Annu Rev Physiol.
1993;
55
55-75
-
26
Bedendi I, Gallo M P, Malan D, Levi R C, Alloatti G.
Role of endothelial cells in modulation of contractility induced hexarelin in rat ventricle.
Life Sci.
2001;
21
2189-2201
-
27
Sicolo N, Bui F, Sicolo M, Varotto L, Martini C, Federspil G.
Acromegalic cardiopathy: a left ventricular scintigraphic study.
J Endocrinol Invest.
1993;
16
123-127
-
28
Frustaci A, Chimenti C, Setoguchi M et al..
Cell death in acromegalic cardiomyopathy.
Circulation.
1999;
99
1426-1434
-
29
Ren J, Samson W K, Sowers J R.
Insulin-like growth factor I as a cardiac hormone: physiological and pathophysiological implications in heart disease.
J Mol Cell Cardiol.
1999;
31
2049-2061
-
30
van Kerkhof P, Strous G J.
The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway regulates lysosomal degradation of the growth hormone receptor and its ligand.
Biochem Soc Trans.
2001;
29
488-493
-
31
Tisdale M J.
Loss of skeletal muscle in cancer: biochemical mechanisms.
Front Biosci.
2001;
6
D164-174
-
32
Franz W M, Muller O J, Katus H A.
Cardiomyopathies: from genetics to the prospects of treatment.
Lancet.
2001;
358
1627-1637
-
33
Cuneo R C.
Growth hormone and cardiac failure.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
2001;
86
4635-4637
-
34
Hongo M, Hironaka E, Yokoseki O et al..
Effects of growth hormone following chronic angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in chronic heart failure: their relation to infarct size.
Cardiovasc Drugs Ther.
2001;
15
241-249
-
35
Hosoda H, Kojima M, Matsuo H, Kangawa K.
Purification and characterization of rat Gln14-ghrelin, second endogenous ligand for the growth hormone receptor.
J Biol Chem.
2000;
275
21995-22000
-
36
Kojima M, Hosoda H, Date Y, Nakazato M, Matsuo H, Kangawa K.
Ghrelin is a growth hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach.
Nature.
1999;
402
656-660
-
37
Nagaya N, Uematsu M, Kojima M et al..
Chronic administration of ghrelin improves left ventricular dysfunction and attenuates development of cardiac cachexia in rats with heart failure.
Circulation.
2001;
104
1430-1435
-
38
Nagaya N, Uemata M, Kojima M et al..
Elevated circulating levels of ghrelin in cachexia associated with chronic heart failure: relationship between ghrelin and anabolic/catabolic factors.
Circulation.
2001;
104
2034-2038
-
39
Volterrani M, Manelli F, Cicoira M, Lorusso R, Giustina A.
A role of growth hormone in chronic heart failure. Therapeutic implications.
Drugs.
2000;
60
711-719
-
40
Anand I S, Ferrari R, Kalra G S, Harris P D, Poole-Wilson P A.
Edema of cardiac origin: studies of body water and sodium, renal function, hemodynamic indexes and plasma hormones in untreated congestive heart failure.
Circulation.
1989;
80
299-305
-
41
Anker S D, Volterrani M, Pflaum C D et al..
Acquired growth hormone resistance in patients with chronic heart failure.
J Am Coll Cardiol.
2001;
38
443-452
-
42
Gu Y, Zou Y, Aikawa R et al..
Growth hormone signalling and apoptosis in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes.
Mol Cell Biochem.
2001;
223
35-46
-
43
Mak S, Newton G E.
The oxidative stress hypothesis of congestive heart failure.
Chest.
2001;
120
2035-2046
-
44
Twickler Th B, Cramer M JM, Koppeschaar H PF, Vries WR de, Erkelens D W.
Cardiovascular endocrinology: a new dimension in medicine.
Lancet.
2002;
359
799
Marcel Th.B TwicklerM.D. Ph.D. (UU) Ph.D. (Paris VI)
Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases
UMC St. Radboud, Catholic University Nijmegen/Radboud University
Geert Grooteplein-Zuid 8, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands