Aktuelle Neurologie 2005; 32(9): 544-565
DOI: 10.1055/s-2005-866933
Fort- und Weiterbildung
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York

Drogen und Nervensystem (Teil 2): Klinisch-neurologisches Drogenbrevier

Drugs and Nervous System (Part 2): A Short Clinical and Neurological Compendium of Illicit DrugsS.  Rüegg1
  • 1Abteilung für Klinische Neurophysiologie, Neurologische Klinik, Universitätsspital Basel, Schweiz
Further Information

Publication History

Publication Date:
07 November 2005 (online)

Weiterbildungsziele In diesem Beitrag sollen folgende Weiterbildungsziele vermittelt werden: Kenntnis der Drogenklassen und der einzelnen wichtigsten Vertreter Kenntnis der neurobiologischen, pharmakologischen und klinisch-neurologischen Wirkungen von:Genussdrogen, Opiaten, Kokain, Stimulanzien, Benzodiazepinen, Butyraten, Halluzinogenen, NMDA-Rezeptorantagonisten, inhalativen Drogen („Schnüffeldrogen”), Cannabinoiden

Literatur

  • 1 Hoaken P NS, Stewart S H. Drugs of abuse and the elicitation of human aggressive behavior.  Addict Behav. 2003;  28 1533-1554
  • 2 Söderpalm B, Ericson M, Olausson P. et al . Nicotinic mechanisms involved in the dopamine activating and reinforcing properties of ethanol.  Behav Brain Res. 2000;  113 85-96
  • 3 Siggins G R, Martin G, Roberto M. et al . Glutamatergic transmission in opiate and alcohol dependence.  Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;  1003 196-211
  • 4 Kumar S, Fleming R L, Morrow A L. Ethanol regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptors: genomic and nongenomic mechanisms.  Pharmacol Ther. 2004;  101 211-226
  • 5 Tupala E, Tiihonen J. Dopamine and alcoholism: neurobiological basis of ethanol abuse.  Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2004;  28 1221-1247
  • 6 Alldredge B K, Lowenstein D H. Status epilepticus related to alcohol abuse.  Epilepsia. 1993;  34 1033-1037
  • 7 Neiman J, Haapaniemi H M, Hilborn M. Neurological complications of drug abuse: pathophysiological mechanisms.  Eur J Neurol. 2000;  7 595-606
  • 8 Martin P R, Singleton C K, Hiller-Sturmhöfel S. The role of thiamine deficiency in alcoholic brain disease.  Alcohol Res Health. 2003;  27 134-142
  • 9 Uchino A, Yuzuriha T, Murakami M. et al . Magnetic resonance imaging of sequelae of central pontine myelinolysis in chronic alcohol abusers.  Neuroradiology. 2003;  45 877-890
  • 10 Kohler C G, Ances B M, Coleman A R. et al . Marchiafava-Bignami disease: literature review and case report.  Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol. 2000;  13 67-76
  • 11 Pahwa R, Lyons K E. Essential tremor: differential diagnosis and current therapy.  Am J Med. 2003;  115 134-142
  • 12 Pontieri F E, Passarelli F, Calò L, Caronti B. Functional correlates of nicotine administration: similarity with drugs of abuse.  J Mol Med. 1998;  76 193-201
  • 13 Picciotto M R. Common aspects of the action of nicotine and other drugs of abuse.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;  51 165-172
  • 14 Mathieu-Kia A M, Kellogg S H, Butelman E R, Kreek M J. Nicotine addiction: insights from recent animal studies.  Psychopharmacology. 2002;  162 102-118
  • 15 Griffiths R R, Woodson P P. Reinforcing properties of caffeine: studies in humans and laboratory animals.  Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1998;  29 419-427
  • 16 Daly J W, Fredholm B B. Caffeine - an atypical drug of dependence.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;  51 199-206
  • 17 Nestler E J. Historical review: molecular and cellular mechanisms of opiate and cocaine addiction.  Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2004;  25 210-218
  • 18 Noda Y, Nabeshima T. Opiate physical dependence and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors.  Eur J Pharmacol. 2004;  500 121-128
  • 19 Laviolette S R, Gallegos R A, Henriksen S I, Kooy D van der. Opiate state controls bi-directional reward signaling via GABAAreceptors in the ventral tegemental area.  Nature Neurosci. 2004;  7 160-169
  • 20 Zhang L C, Buccafusco J J. Adaptive changes in M1 muscarinic receptors localized to sepcific rostral brain regions during and after morphine withdrawal.  Neuropharmacology. 2000;  39 1720-1731
  • 21 Bockstaele E J van, Menko A S, Drolet G. Neuroadaptive responses in brainstem noradrenergic nuclei following chronic morphine exposure.  Mol Neurobiol. 2001;  23 155-171
  • 22 Brown C H, Russell J A. Cellular mechanisms underlying neuronal excitability during morphine withdrawal in physical dependence: lessons from the magnocellular oxytocin system.  Stress. 2004;  7 97-107
  • 23 Zastrow M van, Svingos A, Haberstock-Debic H, Evans C. Regulated endocytosis of opioid receptors: cellular mechanisms and proposed roles in physiological adaptation to opioid drugs.  Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2003;  13 348-353
  • 24 Ciccocioppo R, Angeletti S, Panocka I, Massi M. Nociceptin/orphanin FQ and drugs of abuse.  Peptides. 2000;  21 1071-1080
  • 25 Roumy M, Garnier M, Zajac J M. Neuropeptide FF receptors 1 and 2 exert an anti-opioid activity in acutely dissociated rat dorsal raphe and periventricular hypothalamic neurones.  Neurosci Lett. 2003;  348 159-162
  • 26 Zachariou V, Thome J, Parikh K, Picciotto M R. Upregulation of galanin binding sites and GalR1 mRNA levels in the mouse locus coeruleus following chronic morphine treatments and precipitated morphine withdrawal.  Neuropsychopharmacology. 2000;  23 127-137
  • 27 Bertran F, Denise P, Letellier P. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus: the role of morphine and its antagonists.  Neurophysiol Clin. 2000;  30 109-112
  • 28 Breivink H. Opioids in cancer and chronic non-cancer pain therapy - indications and controversies.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2001;  45 1059-1066
  • 29 Sporer K A. Acute heroin overdose.  Ann Intern Med. 1999;  130 584-590
  • 30 Alldredge B K, Lowenstein D H, Simon R P. Seizures associated with recreational drug abuse.  Neurology. 1989;  39 1037-1039
  • 31 Andersen S N, Skullerud K. Hypoxic/brain ischemia damage, especially pallidal lesions, in heroin addicts.  Forensic Sci Int. 1999;  102 51-59
  • 32 Stamboulis E, Psimaras A, Malliara-loulakaki S. Brachial and lumbar plexitis as a reaction to heroin.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 1988;  22 205-207
  • 33 Bernasconi A, Kuntzer T, Ladbon N. et al . Complications neurologiques périphériques et médullaires de la toxicomanie intraveineuse à l'héroine.  Rev Neurol. 1996;  152 688-694
  • 34 Friedman H, Eisenstein T K. Neurological basis of drug dependence and its effects on the immune system.  J Neuroimmunol. 2004;  147 106-108
  • 35 Vallejo R, Leon-Casasola O de, Ramsun B. Opioid therapy and immunosuppression: a review.  Am J Ther. 2004;  11 354-365
  • 36 Long H, Deore K, Hoffman R S, Nelson L S. A fatal case of spongiform leukoencephalopathy linked to „chasing the dragon”.  J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 2003;  41 887-891
  • 37 Wilson S J, Sayette M A, Fiez J A. Prefrontal responses to drug cues: a neurocognitive analysis.  Nature Neurosci. 2004;  7 211-214
  • 38 Rogers R D, Robbins T W. Investigating the neurocognitive deficits associated with chronic drug misuse.  Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2001;  11 250-257
  • 39 Cicero T J, Inciardi J A. Diversion and abuse of methadone prescribed for pain management.  JAMA. 2005;  293 297-298
  • 40 Manfredi P L, Gonzales G R, Payne R. Reversible spastic paraparesis induced by high-dose intravenous metadone.  J Pain. 2001;  2 77-79
  • 41 Amara S G, Sonders M S. Neurotransmitter transporters as molecular targets for addictive drugs.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;  51 87-96
  • 42 Rothman R B, Baumann M H. Monoamine transporters and psychostimulant drugs.  Eur J Pharmacol. 2003;  479 23-40
  • 43 Homberg J R, Raaso H S, Schoffelmeer A NM, Vries T J de. Individual differences in sensitivity to factors provoking reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior.  Behav Brain Res. 2004;  152 157-161
  • 44 Kalivas P W. Glutamate systems in cocaine addiction.  Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2004;  4 23-29
  • 45 Heinemann A, Miyashi S, Iwersen S. et al . Body-packing as a cause of unexpected sudden death.  Forensic Sci Int. 1998;  92 1-10
  • 46 Lowenstein D H, Massa S M, Rowbotham M C. et al . Acute neurologic and psychiatric complications associated with cocaine abuse.  Am J Med. 1987;  83 841-846
  • 47 Ye J H, Liu P L, Wu W H, McArdle J J. Cocaine depresses GABAA current of hippocampal neurons.  Brain Res. 1997;  770 169-175
  • 48 Gasior M, Ungard J T, Witkin J M. Preclinical evaluation of newly approved and potential antiepileptic drugs against cocaine-induced seizures.  J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1999;  290 1148-1156
  • 49 Witkin J M, Gasior M, Heifets B, Tortella F C. Anticonvulsant efficacy of N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists against convulsions induced by cocaine.  J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1999;  289 703-711
  • 50 Gasior M, Kaminski R, Witkin J M. Pharmacological modulation of GABAB receptors affects cocaine-induced seizures in mice.  Psychopharmacology. 2004;  174 211-219
  • 51 Johnson B A, Devous M D, Ruiz P, Ait-Daoud N. Treatment advances for cocaine-induced ischemic stroke: focus on dihydropyridine-class calcium channel antagonists.  Am J Psychiatry. 2001;  158 1191-1198
  • 52 Fessler R D, Esshaki C M, Stankewitz R C. et al . The neurovascular complications of cocaine.  Surg Neurol. 1997;  47 339-345
  • 53 Merkel P A, Koroshetz W J, Irizarry M C, Cudkowicz M E. Cocaine-associated cerebral vasculitis.  Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1995;  25 172-183
  • 54 Aggarwal S K, Williams V, Levine S R. et al . Cocaine-associated intracranial hemorrhage: absence of vasculitis in 14 cases.  Neurology. 1996;  46 1741-1743
  • 55 Bartzokis G, Beckson M, Lu P H. et al . Age-related brain volume reductions in amphetamine and cocaine addicts and normal controls: implications for addiction research.  Psychiatry Res. 2000;  98 93-102
  • 56 Büttner A, Mall G, Penning R. et al . The neuropathology of cocaine abuse.  Legal Med. 2003;  5 S240-S242
  • 57 Cardoso F, Jankovic J. Movement disorders.  Neurol Clin. 1993;  11 625-638
  • 58 Daras M, Koppel B S, Atos-Radzion E. Cocaine-induced choreoathetoid movements („crack dancing”).  Neurology. 1994;  44 751-752
  • 59 Cardoso F, Jankovic J. Cocaine-related movement disorders.  Mov Disord. 1993;  8 175-178
  • 60 Richards J R. Rhabdomyolysis and drugs of abuse.  J Emerg Med. 2000;  19 51-56
  • 61 Martinsson L, Wahlgren N G. Safety of Dexamphetamine in acute ischemic stroke. A randomized, double-blind, controlled dose-escalation trial.  Stroke. 2003;  34 475-481
  • 62 White F J, Kalivas P W. Neuroadaptations involved in amphetamine and cocaine addiction.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;  51 141-153
  • 63 Zagoni P G, Albano C. Psychostimulants and epilepsy.  Epilepsia. 2002;  43 (Suppl 2) S28-S31
  • 64 Selmi F, Davies K G, Sharma R R, Neal J W. Intracerebral haemorrhage due to amphetamine abuse: report of two cases with underlying arteriovenous malformations.  Br J Neurosurg. 1995;  9 93-96
  • 65 Buxton N, McConachie N S. Amphetamine abuse and intracranial haemorrhage.  J R Soc Med. 2000;  93 472-477
  • 66 Schiorring E. Psychopathology induced by „speed drugs”.  Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1981;  14 (Suppl 1) S109-S122
  • 67 Hanson G R, Rau K S, Fleckenstein A E. The methamphetamine experience: a NIDA partnership.  Neuropharmacology. 2004;  47 92-100
  • 68 Davidson C, Gow A J, Lee T H, Ellinwood E H. Methamphetamine neurotoxicity: necrotic and apoptotic mechanisms and relevance to human abuse and treatment.  Brain Res Rev. 2001;  36 1-22
  • 69 Cadet J L, Jayanthi S, Deng X. Speed kills: cellular and molecular bases of methamphetamine-induced nerve terminal degeneration and neuronal apoptosis.  FASEB J. 2003;  17 1775-1788
  • 70 Perez Jr J A, Arsura E L, Strategos S. Methamphetamine-related stroke: four cases.  J Emerg Med. 1999;  17 469-471
  • 71 Wijaya J, Salu P, Leblanc A, Bervoets S. Acute unilateral visual loss due to a single intranasal methamphetamine abuse.  Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol. 1999;  271 19-25
  • 72 Guilarte T R. Is methamphetamine abuse a risk factor in parkinsonism?.  Neurotoxicology. 2001;  22 725-731
  • 73 Moszczynska A, Fitzmaurice P, Ang L. et al . Why is parkinsonism not a feature of human methamphetamine users?.  Brain. 2004;  127 363-370
  • 74 Nordahl T E, Salo R, Leamon M. Neuropsychological effects of chronic methamphetamine use on neurotransmitters and cognition: a review.  J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2003;  15 317-325
  • 75 Newton T F, Cook I A, Kalechstein A D. et al . Quantitative EEG abnormalities in recently abstinent methamphetamine dependent individuals.  Clin Neurophysiol. 2003;  114 410-415
  • 76 Nath A, Maragos W F, Avison M J. et al . Acceleration of HIV dementia with methamphetamine and cocaine.  J Neurovirol. 2001;  7 66-71
  • 77 Urbina A, Jones K. Crystal methamphetamine, its analogues, and HIV infection: medical and psychiatric aspects of a new epidemic.  Clin Infect Dis. 2004;  38 890-894
  • 78 Weir E. Raves: a review of the culture, the drugs and the prevention of harm.  CMAJ. 2000;  162 1843-1848
  • 79 Green A R, Mechan A O, Elliott J M. et al . The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, „Ecstasy”).  Pharmacol Rev. 2003;  55 463-508
  • 80 Kalant H. The pharmacology and toxicology of „ecstasy” (MDMA) and related drugs.  CMAJ. 2001;  165 917-928
  • 81 Gahlinger P M. Club drugs: MDMA gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), rohypnol, and ketamine.  Am Fam Phys. 2004;  69 2619-2627
  • 82 Jansen K LR. Ecstasy (MDMA) dependence.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 1999;  53 121-124
  • 83 Boyer E W, Shannon M. The serotonin syndrome.  New Engl J Med. 2005;  352 1112-1120
  • 84 Green A R, O'Shea E, Colado M I. A review or the mechanisms involved in the acute MDMA (ecstasy)-induced hyperthermic response.  Eur J Pharmacol. 2004;  500 3-13
  • 85 Henry J A, Jeffreys K J, Dawling S. Toxicity and deaths from 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine („ecstasy”).  Lancet. 1992;  340 384-387
  • 86 Holmes S B, Banerjee A K, Alexander W D. Hyponatraemia and seizures after ecstasy use.  Postgrad Med J. 1999;  75 32-34
  • 87 Burgess C, O'Donohoe A, Gill M. Agony and ecstasy: a review of MDMA effects and toxicity.  Eur Psychiatry. 2000;  15 287-294
  • 88 Hartung T K, Schofield E, Short A I. et al . Hyponatraemic states following 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, „Ecstasy”) ingestion.  Q J Med. 2002;  95 431-437
  • 89 Ben-Abraham R, Szold O, Rudick V, Weinbroum A A. „Ecstasy” intoxication: life-threatening manifestations and resuscitative measures in the intensive care setting.  Eur J Emerg Med. 2003;  10 309-313
  • 90 McEvoy A W, Kitchen N D, Thomas D G. Intracerebral haemorrhage and drug abuse in young adults.  Br J Neurosurg. 2000;  14 449-454
  • 91 Auer J, Berent R, Weber T. et al . Subarachnoid haemorrhage with „Ecstasy” abuse in a young adult.  Neurol Sci. 2002;  23 199-201
  • 92 Turner J JD, Parott A C. „Is MDMA a human neurotoxin?”: Diverse views from the discussants.  Neuropsychobiology. 2000;  42 42-48
  • 93 Ricaurte G A, Yuan J, Hatzidimitrou G. et al . Severe dopaminergic neurotoxicity in primates after a common recreational dose regimen of MDMA („Ecstasy”).  Science. 2002;  297 2260-2263 , Retraction: Science 2003; 301: 1479
  • 94 Lyles J, Cadet J L. Methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) neurotoxicity: cellular and molecular mechanisms.  Brain Res Rev. 2003;  42 155-168
  • 95 Halpern J H, Pope Jr H G, Sherwood A R. et al . Residual neuropsychological effects of illicit 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in individuals with minimal exposure to other drugs.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004;  75 135-147
  • 96 Lyvers M, Hasking P. Have Halpern et al. (2004) detected „residual neuropsychological effects” of MDMA? Not likely.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004;  75 149-152
  • 97 Sprague J E, Everman S L, Nichols D E. An integrated hypothesis for the serotonergic axonal loss induced by 3,4-methylendioxymethamphetamine.  Neurotoxicology. 1998;  19 427-441
  • 98 McCardle K, Luebbers S, Carter J D. et al . Chronic MDMA (ecstasy) use, cognition and mood.  Psychopharmacology. 2004;  173 434-439
  • 99 Freese T E, Miotto K, Reback C J. The effects and consequences of selected club drugs.  J Subst Abuse Treat. 2002;  23 151-156
  • 100 Cole J C, Sumnall H R. Altered states: the clinical effects of ecstasy.  Pharmacol Ther. 2003;  98 35-58
  • 101 Vecellio M, Schopper C, Modestin J. Neuropsychiatric consequences (atypical psychosis and complex-partial seizures) of ecstasy use: possibile evidence for toxicity-vulnerability predictors and implications for preventive and clinical care.  J Psychopharmacol. 2003;  17 342-345
  • 102 Kish S J. What is the evidence that ecstasy (MDMA) can cause Parkinson's disease?.  Mov Disord. 2003;  18 1219-1223
  • 103 Refstad S. Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA) poisoning: a „party drug” with lethal effect.  Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2003;  47 1298-1299
  • 104 Gschwandtner U, Aston J, Renaud S, Fuhr P. Pathologic gambling in patients with Parkinson's disease.  Clin Neuropharmacol. 2001;  24 170-172
  • 105 Lawrence A D, Evans A H, Lees A J. Compulsive use of dopamine replacement therapy in Parkinson's disease: reward systems gone awry?.  Lancet Neurol. 2003;  2 595-604
  • 106 Dodd M L, Klos K J, Bower J H. et al . Pathologic gambling caused by drugs used to treat Parkinson disease.  Arch Neurol. 2005;  62 1301-1305
  • 107 Allison C, Pratt J A. Neuroadaptive processes in GABAergic and glutamatergic systems in benzodiazepine dependence.  Pharmacol Ther. 2003;  98 171-195
  • 108 Gatzonis S D, Angelopoulos E KD, Askalopoulou E G. et al . Convulsive status epilepticus following abrupt high-dose benzodiazepine discontinuation.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 2000;  59 95-97
  • 109 Olnes M J, Golding A, Kaplan P W. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus resulting from benzodiazepine withdrawal.  Ann Intern Med. 2003;  139 956-958
  • 110 Thomas P, Lebrun C, Chatel M. De novo absence status epilepticus as a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome.  Epilepsia. 1993;  34 355-358
  • 111 Druid H, Holmgren P, Ahlner J. Flunitrazepam: an evaluation of use, abuse, and toxicity.  Forensic Sci Int. 2001;  122 136-141
  • 112 Nicholson K L, Balster R L. GHB: a new and novel drug of abuse.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 2001;  63 1-22
  • 113 Wong C GT, Gibson K M, Snead 3rd  O C. From the street to the brain: neurobiology of the recreational drug γ-hydroxybutyric acid.  Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2004;  25 29-34
  • 114 Wong C G, Chan K F, Gibson K M, Snead 3rd  O C. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid: neurobiology and toxicology of a recreational drug.  Toxicol Rev. 2004;  23 3-20
  • 115 Snead 3rd  O C, Gibson K M. γ-hydroxybutyric acid.  New Engl J Med. 2005;  352 2721-2732
  • 116 Wong C GT, Bottiglieri T, Snead 3rd  O C. GABA, γ-hydroxybutyric acid, and neurological disease.  Ann Neurol. 2003;  54 (Suppl 6) S3-S12
  • 117 Li J, Stokes S A, Woeckener A. A tale of novel intoxication: seven cases of γ-hydroxybutyric acid overdose.  Ann Emerg Med. 1998;  31 723-728
  • 118 Dyer J E. γ-Hydroxybutyrate: a health-food product producing coma and seizure-like activity.  Am J Emerg Med. 1991;  9 321-324
  • 119 Chin M Y, Dyer J E. Acute poisoning from γ-hydroxybutyrate in California.  West J Med. 1992;  156 380-384
  • 120 Li J, Stokes S A, Woeckener A. A tale of novel intoxication: A review of the effects of γ-hydroxybutyric acid with recommendations for management.  Ann Emerg Med. 1998;  31 729-736
  • 121 Degenhardt L, Darke S, Dillon P. The prevalence and correlates of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) overdose among Australian users.  Addiction. 2003;  98 199-204
  • 122 Kam P CA, Yoong F FY. Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid: an emerging recreational drug.  Anaesthesia. 1998;  53 1195-1198
  • 123 Schwartz R H, Milteer R, LeBeau M A. Drug-facilitated sexual assault (date rape).  Southern Med J. 2000;  93 558-561
  • 124 Novak S J. Second thoughts on psychedelic drugs.  Endeavour. 1998;  22 21-23
  • 125 Marek G J, Aghajanian G K. Indoleamine and the phenethylamine hallucinogens: mechanisms of psychomimetic action.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;  51 189-198
  • 126 Nichols D E. Hallucinogens.  Pharmacol Ther. 2004;  101 131-181
  • 127 Supprian T, Frey U, Supprian R. et al . Über den Gebrauch psychoaktiver Pilze als Rauschmittel.  Fortschr Neurol Psychiat. 2001;  69 597-602
  • 128 Halpern J H. Hallucinogens and dissociative agents naturally growing in the United States.  Pharmacol Ther. 2004;  102 131-138
  • 129 Aghajanian G K, Marek G J. Serotonin and hallucinogens.  Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999;  21 (Suppl 2) S16-S23
  • 130 Halpern J H, Pope Jr H G. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder: what do we know after 50 years?.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003;  69 109-119
  • 131 Mangini M. Treatment of alcoholism using psychedelic drugs: a review of the program of research.  J Psychoactive Drugs. 1998;  30 381-418
  • 132 Halpern J H. Hallucinogens: an update.  Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2003;  5 347-354
  • 133 Delgado P L, Moreno F A. Hallucinogens, serotonin and obsessive-compulsive disorder.  J Psychoactive Drugs. 1998;  30 359-366
  • 134 Farlow M R. NMDA receptor antagonists. A new therapeutic approach for Alzheimer's disease.  Geriatrics. 2004;  59 22-27
  • 135 Thanvi B R, Lo T C. Long-term motor complications of levodopa: clinical features, mechanisms, and management strategies.  Postgrad Med J. 2004;  80 452-458
  • 136 Lindahl J S, Keifer J. Glutamate receptor subunits are altered in forebrain and cerebellum in rats chronically exposed to the NMDA receptor antagonist phencyclidine.  Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;  29 2065-2073
  • 137 Jentsch J D, Roth R H. The neuropsychopharmacology of phencyclidine: from NMDA receptor hypofunction to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia.  Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999;  20 201-225
  • 138 Pestaner J P, Southall P E. Sudden death during arrest and phencyclidine intoxication.  Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2003;  24 119-122
  • 139 Thaker G K, Carpenter Jr W T. Advances in schizophrenia.  Nat Med. 2001;  6 667-671
  • 140 Murray J B. Phencyclidine (PCP): a dangerous drug, but useful in schizophrenia research.  J Psychol. 2002;  136 319-327
  • 141 McCarron M M, Schulze B W, Thompson G A. et al . Acute phencyclidine intoxication: incidence of clinical findings in 1000 cases.  Ann Emerg Med. 1981;  10 237-242
  • 142 Reich D L, Silvay G. Ketamine: an update on the first twenty-five years of clinical experience.  Can J Anaesth. 1989;  36 186-197
  • 143 Petrenko A B, Yamakura T, Fujiwara N. et al . Reduced sensitivity to ketamine and pentobarbital in mice lacking the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor GluRε1 subunit.  Anesth Analg. 2004;  99 1136-1140
  • 144 Vry J De, Jentzsch K R. Role of the NMDA receptor NR2B subunit in the discriminative stimulus effects of ketamine.  Behav Pharmacol. 2003;  14 229-235
  • 145 Jansen K L, Darracot-Cankovic R. The nonmedical use of ketamine, part two: a review of problem use and dependence.  J Psychoactive Drugs. 2001;  33 151-158
  • 146 Balster R L. Neural basis of inhalant abuse.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;  51 207-214
  • 147 Zimmermann M. Pathobiology of neuropathic pain.  Eur J Pharmacol. 2001;  429 23-37
  • 148 Fujinaga M, Maze M. Neurobiology of nitrous oxide-induced antinociceptive effects.  Mol Neurobiol. 2002;  25 167-189
  • 149 Aydin K, Sencer S, Ogel K. et al . Single-voxel proton MR spectroscopy in toluene abuse.  Magn Reson Imaging. 2003;  21 777-785
  • 150 Filley C M, Halliday W, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters B K. The effects of toluene on the central nervous system.  J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2004;  63 1-12
  • 151 Anderson C E, Loomis G A. Recognition and prevention of inhalant abuse.  Am Fam Physician. 2003;  68 869-874
  • 152 Childers S R, Breivogel C S. Cannabis and endogenous cannabinoid systems.  Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;  51 173-187
  • 153 Ameri A. The effects of cannabinoids on the brain.  Prog Neurobiol. 1999;  58 315-348
  • 154 Devane W A, Dysarz 3rd  F A, Johnson M R. et al . Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain.  Mol Pharmacol. 1988;  34 605-613
  • 155 Matsuda L A, Lolait S J, Brownstein M J. et al . Structure of a cannabinoid receptor and functional expression of cloned DNA (cDNA).  Nature. 1990;  346 561-564
  • 156 Devane W A, Hanus L, Breuer A. et al . Isolation and structure of a brain constituant that binds to the cannabinoid receptor.  Science. 1992;  258 1946-1949
  • 157 Fride E. Endocannabinoids in the central nervous system - an overview.  Prostagl Leukotr Essent Fatty Acids. 2002;  66 221-233
  • 158 Baker D, Pryce G, Giovannoni G, Thompson A J. The therapeutic potential of cannabis.  Lancet Neurol. 2003;  2 291-298
  • 159 Howlett A C, Breivogel C S, Childers S R. et al . Cannabinoid physiology and pharmacology: 30 years of progress.  Neuropharmacology. 2004;  47 345-358
  • 160 Ashton C H. Pharmacology and effects of cannabis: a brief overview.  Br J Psychiatry. 2001;  178 101-106
  • 161 Iversen L. Cannabis and the brain.  Brain. 2003;  126 1252-1270
  • 162 Moussouttas M. Cannabis use and cerebrovascular disease.  Neurologist. 2004;  10 47-53
  • 163 Mateo I, Pinedo A, Gomez-Beldarrain M. et al . Recurrent stroke associated with cannabis use.  J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;  76 435-437
  • 164 Tanda G, Goldberg S R. Cannabinoids: reward, dependence, and underlying neurochemical mechanisms - a review of recent preclinical data.  Psychopharmacology. 2003;  169 115-134
  • 165 Macleod J, Oakes R, Copello A. et al . Psychological and social sequelae of cannabis and other illicit drug use by young people: a systemic review of longitudinal, general population studies.  Lancet. 2004;  363 1579-1588
  • 166 Lane S D, Cherek D R, Tcheremissine O V. et al . Acute marijuana effects on human risk taking.  Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;  30 800-809
  • 167 Veen N D, Selten J P, Tewel I van der. et al . Cannabis use and age at onset of schizophrenia.  Am J Psychiatry. 2004;  161 501-506
  • 168 Drewe M, Drewe J, Riecher-Rössler A. Cannabis and risk of psychosis.  Swiss Med Wkly. 2004;  134 659-663
  • 169 Henquet C, Krabbendam L, Spauwen J. et al . Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people.  BMJ. 2005;  330 11 , doi: DOI: 10.1136/bmj.38267.664086.63 , (published 1 December 2004)
  • 170 Favrat B, Menetrey A, Augsburger M. et al . Two cases of „cannabis acute psychosis” following the administration of oral cannabis.  BMC Psychiatry. 2005;  5 17 , doi: DOI: 10.1186/1471-244X-5-17
  • 171 Ralevic V. Cannabinoid modulation of peripheral autonomic and sensory neurotransmission.  Eur J Pharmacol. 2003;  472 1-21
  • 172 Zajicek J, Fox P, Sanders H. et al . Cannabinoids for treatment of spasticity and other symptoms related to multiple sclerosis (CAMS study): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial.  Lancet. 2003;  362 1517-1526
  • 173 Gorter R W, Butorac M, Cobian E P, Sluis W van der. Medical use of cannabis in the Netherlands.  Neurology. 2005;  64 917-919
  • 174 Chen K, Ratzliff A, Hilgenberg L. et al . Long-term plasticity of endocannabinoid-signaling induced by developmental febrile seizures.  Neuron. 2003;  39 599-611
  • 175 Wallace M J, Blair R E, Falenski K W. et al . The endogenous cannabinoid system regulates seizure frequency and duration in a model of temporal lobe epilepsy.  J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2003;  307 129-137
  • 176 Panikashvili D, Simeonidou C, Ben-Shabat S. et al . An endogenous cannabinoid (2-AG) is neuroprotective after brain injury.  Nature. 2001;  413 527-531
  • 177 Pryce G, Ahmed Z, Hankey D JR. et al . Cannabinoids inhibit neurodegeneration in models of multiple sclerosis.  Brain. 2003;  126 2191-2202
  • 178 Black S C. Cannabinoid receptor antagonists and obesity.  Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2004;  5 389-394
  • 179 Fernandez J R, Allison D B. Rimonabant Sanofi-Synthélabo.  Curr Opin Invest Drugs. 2004;  5 430-435

Dr. med. Stephan Rüegg

Abt. f. klinische Neurophysiologie · Neurologische Klinik · Universitätsspital

Petersgraben 4

4031 Basel · Schweiz

Email: srueegg@uhbs.ch