Infection of the endothelium by influenza viruses

Summary

Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses are nonly ot the of cause devastating “bird flu” outbreaks in domestic fowl, but are also occasionally the cause of human disease with a high mortality rate as is being currently observed with the H5N1 viruses in South-East Asia. Infection in birds is systemic with hemorrhages and edema as characteristic symptoms, and virus replication in the endothelium appears to play an important role in pathogenesis. Some of the factors determining endotheliotropism have been elucidated at the molecular and cellular level. They include proteolytic activation of the hemagglutinin,polarity of virus budding, and tissue specific expression of virus receptors.

Keywords

Influenza virus - endotheliotropism - fowl plague - hemorrhages

• References

• 1 Webster RG, Bean WJ, Gorman T. et al. Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. Microbiol Rev 1992; 56: 152-79.
• 2 Fouchier RA, Munster V, Wallensten A. et al. Characterization of a novel influenza A virus hemagglutinin subtype (H16) obtained from black-headed gulls. J Virol 2005; 79: 2814-22.
• 3 Klenk HD, Garten W. Activation cleavage of viral spike proteins by host proteases. Cellular Receptors for Animal Viruses. Wimmer E.. Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbour; New York: 1994: 241-80.
• 4 Banks J, Speidel E, Alexander DJ. Characterization of an avian influenza A virus isolated from a human – is an intermediate host necessary for the emergence of pandemic influenza viruses?. Arch Virol 1998; 143: 781-7.
• 5 Kurtz I, Manvell RJ, Banks J. Avian influenza virus isolated from a woman with conjunctivitis. Lancet 1996; 348: 901-2.
• 6 Fouchier RA, Schneeberger PM, Rozendaal FW. et al. Avian influenza A virus (H7N7) associated with human conjunctivitis and a fatal case of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101: 1356-61.
• 7 de Jong JC, Claas EC, Osterhaus AD. et al. A pandemic warning?. Nature 1997; 389: 554.
• 8 Subbarao K, Klimov A, Katz J. et al. Characterization of an avian influenza A (H5N1) virus isolated from a child with fatal respiratory illness. Science 1998; 279: 393-6.
• 9 Govorkova EA, Rehg JE, Krauss S. et al. Lethality to Ferrets of H5N1 influenza viruses isolated from humans and poultry in 2004. J Virol 2005; 79: 2191-8.
• 10 Gratzl E, Koehler H. Gefluegelpest. Spezielle Pathologie und Therapie der Gefluegelkrankheiten, Ferdinand Enke Verlag, Stuttgart. 1968: 178-200.
• 11 Narayan O, Thorsen J, Hulland TJ. et al. Pathogenesis of lethal influenza virus infection in turkeys. I. Extraneural phase of infection. J Comp Pathol 1972; 82: 129-37.
• 12 Kobayashi Y, Horimoto T, Kawaoka Y. et al. Pathological studies of chickens experimentally infected with two highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Avian Pathology 1996; 25: 285-304.
• 13 Suarez DL, Perdue ML, Cox N. et al. Comparisons of highly virulent H5N1 influenza A viruses isolated from humans and chickens from Hong Kong. J Virol 1998; 72: 6678-88.
• 14 van Campen H, Easterday BC, Hinshaw VS. Destruction of lymphocytes by a virulent avian influenza A virus. J Gen Virol 1989; a 70: 467-72.
• 15 van Campen H, Easterday BC, Hinshaw VS. Virulent avian influenza A viruses: their effect on avian lymphocytes and macrophages in vivo and in vitro. J Gen Virol 1989; a 70: 2887-95.
• 16 Matrosovich MN, Matrosovich TY, Gray T. et al. Human and avian influenza viruses target different cell types in cultures of human airway epithelium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101: 4620-4.
• 17 Feldmann A, Schäfer K-H, Garten W. et al. Targeted infection of endothelial cells by avian influenza Virus A/FPV/Rostock/34 (H7N1) in chicken embryos. J Virol 2000; 74: 8018-27.
• 18 Horimoto T, Nakayama K, Smeekens SP. et al. Proprotein- processing endoproteases PC6 and furin both activate hemagglutinin of virulent avian influenza viruses. J Virol 1994; 68: 6074-8.
• 19 Stieneke-Gröber A, Vey M, Angliker H. et al. Influenza virus hemagglutinin with multibasic cleavage site is activated by furin, a subtilisin-like endoprotease. Embo J 1992; 11: 2407-14.
• 20 Nico B, Quondamatteo F, Ribatti D. et al. Ultrastructural localization of lectin binding sites in the developing brain microvasculature. Anat Embryol 1998; 197: 305-15.
• 21 Codogno P, Aubery M. Changes in cell-surface sialic acid content during chick embryo development. Mech Ageing Dev 1983; 23: 307-14.
• 22 Rott R, Reinacher M, Orlich M. et al. Cleavability of hemagglutinin determines spread of avian influenza viruses in the chorioallantoic membrane of chicken embryo. Arch Virol 1980; 65: 123-33.
• 23 Ryabchikova EJ, Kolesnikova LV, Netesov SV. Animal pathology of filoviral infections. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1999; 235: 145-73.
• 24 Schnittler HJ, Mahner F, Drenckhahn D. et al. Replication of Marburg virus in human endothelial cells. A possible mechanism for the development of viral hemorrhagic disease. J Clin Invest 1993; 91: 1301-9.
• 25 Zaki SR, Goldsmith CS. Pathologic features of filovirus infections in humans. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1999; 235: 97-116.